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Starting in the 1970s product placement became known as an alternative communications tool and its use quickly grew mainly due to the «audience fragmentation» phenomenon. This phenomenon arises as a consequence of the difficulty in effectively reaching the target market due to the ever increasing offer of advertising possibilities and the lack of interest shown by audiences (Karniouchina, Uslay & Erenburg, 2011; Miles, 2009; Eisend, 2009). Product, or brand, placement has been defined as «the paid inclusion of brand products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual media, as part of the programming done by mass communication media» (Karrh, 1998). This concept implies integrated planning of a non-obstructive commercial message within media entertainment space, so that individuals do not perceive it as an explicit attempt to commercially influence them (Balasubramanian, 1994). | Starting in the 1970s product placement became known as an alternative communications tool and its use quickly grew mainly due to the «audience fragmentation» phenomenon. This phenomenon arises as a consequence of the difficulty in effectively reaching the target market due to the ever increasing offer of advertising possibilities and the lack of interest shown by audiences (Karniouchina, Uslay & Erenburg, 2011; Miles, 2009; Eisend, 2009). Product, or brand, placement has been defined as «the paid inclusion of brand products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual media, as part of the programming done by mass communication media» (Karrh, 1998). This concept implies integrated planning of a non-obstructive commercial message within media entertainment space, so that individuals do not perceive it as an explicit attempt to commercially influence them (Balasubramanian, 1994). | ||
| − | In this respect, the corresponding literature distinguishes different types of placement in movies, such as: verbal, visual or audiovisual, according to its importance within a scene (subtle or prominent) (Gupta & Lord, 1998), degree of integration with the plot, and its relationship with the main character(s) (Russell, 1998; | + | In this respect, the corresponding literature distinguishes different types of placement in movies, such as: verbal, visual or audiovisual, according to its importance within a scene (subtle or prominent) (Gupta & Lord, 1998), degree of integration with the plot, and its relationship with the main character(s) (Russell, 1998; d'Astous & Séguin, 1999). Starting with the landscape model, which exposes the information activation patterns in an individual's memory as part of the process of comprehension (Willes & Danielova, 2009; Van-den-Broek et al., 1996; Van-den-Broek, Yuhtsuen & Linderholm, 1999), visual «placement» has been categorized into three levels according to the degree of integration of the brand with the plot. In the first place, the brand may be presented as part of the background, shown in a scene but without being used. Secondly, it may be used by one of the main characters, but not in a manner relevant to the plot. And thirdly, it may be connected to the storyline, playing an integral part in the development of the movie (Yang & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007). |
Placement in Chile has mainly been used in TV shows, TV series, and reality shows. In the last few years, this has been extended to movies and series (Salazar, 2012). This industry is still, however, in a developmental stage (Uribe & Campo, 2008). In fact, most of the studies have been applied to American audiences, with very little investigative evidence existing regarding Latin America (Khalbous & al., 2013). | Placement in Chile has mainly been used in TV shows, TV series, and reality shows. In the last few years, this has been extended to movies and series (Salazar, 2012). This industry is still, however, in a developmental stage (Uribe & Campo, 2008). In fact, most of the studies have been applied to American audiences, with very little investigative evidence existing regarding Latin America (Khalbous & al., 2013). | ||
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Similarly, Russel (1998) classified the types of placement in three dimensions. The visual dimension or «screen placement», implying the appearance of the brand on screen, which can be presented in different degrees according to the number of appearances, the recording style of the product or brand, etc. The audio dimension or «script placement», implying a verbal mention of the brand within the dialogue and may vary depending on the frequency that the brand is mentioned, as well as the emphasis and tone of voice used. And the third dimension, a connection to the storyline or «plot placement», which refers to the high or low level of intensity that the product is integrated into the central plot and storyline, and may be presented either visually or in an audio manner. | Similarly, Russel (1998) classified the types of placement in three dimensions. The visual dimension or «screen placement», implying the appearance of the brand on screen, which can be presented in different degrees according to the number of appearances, the recording style of the product or brand, etc. The audio dimension or «script placement», implying a verbal mention of the brand within the dialogue and may vary depending on the frequency that the brand is mentioned, as well as the emphasis and tone of voice used. And the third dimension, a connection to the storyline or «plot placement», which refers to the high or low level of intensity that the product is integrated into the central plot and storyline, and may be presented either visually or in an audio manner. | ||
| − | Authors | + | Authors d'Astous and Séguin (1999) catalogued three types of television product placement: 1) «implied placement», in which a brand is presented on a show without being formally mentioned, playing a passive or contextual role where the benefits or attributes of the product are not showcased; 2) «explicitly integrated placement», in which the brand or product plays an active role on a show, having its attributes and benefits demonstrated and showcased formally; 3) «non-integrated explicit placement», where the brand is formally referred to but is not integrated into the contents of the program. |
Based on the landscape model, Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2007) categorized visual placement into three different levels according to the degree of integration of the brand with the plot. The brand may be shown in a scene with the main character(s) presented as part of the background, but without being used; the brand may be used by a main character but not in a fashion relevant to the storyline; or the brand can be connected to the story playing an integral part in the outcome of the movie. The main discovery of these authors is related to the fact that brand placement connected to the storyline has a higher probability of being explicitly remembered in the future. | Based on the landscape model, Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2007) categorized visual placement into three different levels according to the degree of integration of the brand with the plot. The brand may be shown in a scene with the main character(s) presented as part of the background, but without being used; the brand may be used by a main character but not in a fashion relevant to the storyline; or the brand can be connected to the story playing an integral part in the outcome of the movie. The main discovery of these authors is related to the fact that brand placement connected to the storyline has a higher probability of being explicitly remembered in the future. | ||
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Research has shown that individuals use their explicit memory to recover information related to an ad or exposure to a past event, implying a deliberate or purposeful effort to try to access the previous information (Shapiro & Krishnan, 2001; Jusufovic-Karisik, 2014). Law and Braun (2000) conclude that two cognitive processes, brand recall and awareness, affect the same kind of memory (explicit), and that the impact of product placement in movies could be measured using memory or unaided recall tests (Wiles & Danielova, 2009). Shapiro and Krishnan (2001), on the other hand, explain explicit memory as an automatic or unconscious recovery process that is generally measured by requesting that the individual complete or finish phrases after having been exposed to a message, or through brand selection or purchase intention behavioral activities without referring to the episode to which the individual had been exposed to previously. These processes that affect the subconscious memory of individuals play an important role by influencing behavior, for example, in consumption (Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Krishnan & Trappey, 1999; Goode, 2007; Padmanabhan & Jena, 2013; Srivastava, 2014). | Research has shown that individuals use their explicit memory to recover information related to an ad or exposure to a past event, implying a deliberate or purposeful effort to try to access the previous information (Shapiro & Krishnan, 2001; Jusufovic-Karisik, 2014). Law and Braun (2000) conclude that two cognitive processes, brand recall and awareness, affect the same kind of memory (explicit), and that the impact of product placement in movies could be measured using memory or unaided recall tests (Wiles & Danielova, 2009). Shapiro and Krishnan (2001), on the other hand, explain explicit memory as an automatic or unconscious recovery process that is generally measured by requesting that the individual complete or finish phrases after having been exposed to a message, or through brand selection or purchase intention behavioral activities without referring to the episode to which the individual had been exposed to previously. These processes that affect the subconscious memory of individuals play an important role by influencing behavior, for example, in consumption (Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Krishnan & Trappey, 1999; Goode, 2007; Padmanabhan & Jena, 2013; Srivastava, 2014). | ||
| − | Regarding types of placement, it has been found that brands that are highly integrated with the plot are more often remembered and recognized (Lehu & Bressoud, 2009; Russell, 2002), as well as placement that involves a major character ( | + | Regarding types of placement, it has been found that brands that are highly integrated with the plot are more often remembered and recognized (Lehu & Bressoud, 2009; Russell, 2002), as well as placement that involves a major character (d'Astous, Séguin & Chartier, 2000; Redker, Gibson & Zimmerman, 2013). Hypotheses 1 and 2 are formulated for the purpose of investigating the degree in which each type of placement influences unaided recall and brand awareness. |
" H1: The rate of unaided recall in participants exposed to placement in movies is greater for brand placement connected to the storyline, followed by brand placement used by a main character, and lastly brand placement as part of the background. | " H1: The rate of unaided recall in participants exposed to placement in movies is greater for brand placement connected to the storyline, followed by brand placement used by a main character, and lastly brand placement as part of the background. | ||
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The most relevant find of this research is related to the effect that placement apparently produces in the implicit memory of individuals, which is measured in this study through a purchase intention test. Regarding the types of placement, only a higher significant influence of the brand used by a main character is identified, compared to brand placement as part of the background. It has been mentioned that subtle placements could have a greater influence in implicit exercises, as explained by Ho, Ling and Young, 2011 in their placement study for video games; however, the results of the present study were the opposite. In this sense, no relationship with the comprehension of information model proposed by the landscape model is found, consistent with the evidence that supports that implicit memory would not be influenced by the way that the information is processed in the mind. A possible explanation could be that when the brand is used by a character the sense of familiarity increased, which could work as heuristic at the moment of brand selection, causing the so called «transference effect» due to the learning of certain consumer social environments. | The most relevant find of this research is related to the effect that placement apparently produces in the implicit memory of individuals, which is measured in this study through a purchase intention test. Regarding the types of placement, only a higher significant influence of the brand used by a main character is identified, compared to brand placement as part of the background. It has been mentioned that subtle placements could have a greater influence in implicit exercises, as explained by Ho, Ling and Young, 2011 in their placement study for video games; however, the results of the present study were the opposite. In this sense, no relationship with the comprehension of information model proposed by the landscape model is found, consistent with the evidence that supports that implicit memory would not be influenced by the way that the information is processed in the mind. A possible explanation could be that when the brand is used by a character the sense of familiarity increased, which could work as heuristic at the moment of brand selection, causing the so called «transference effect» due to the learning of certain consumer social environments. | ||
| − | In this way, the use of placement in movies, and more specifically the brand used by a main character, would stimulate implicit memory when the product already exists in the market because this would reinforce the | + | In this way, the use of placement in movies, and more specifically the brand used by a main character, would stimulate implicit memory when the product already exists in the market because this would reinforce the individual's behavioral answers such as purchase intention or effective purchasing, working as a learning consumer stimulus; in other words, educommunication. This could eventually end up being detrimental if we apply these findings to restricted consumer products, such as alcohol (Noguti & Russel, 2014). In these cases, the individual could automatically, or unconsciously, recover the stimuli to which they had been exposed to during placement and thus have their conduct influenced. |
The limitations that this research presents are in terms of the sample design used. Because the sample is not a probability sampling, the results cannot be generalized to the rest of the Chilean college student population. Regarding the methodology used, the immediate effects on the participants are measured through exercises that are provided immediately after exposure to the placement in the movies. An analysis of the effects of placement after a few weeks of having concluded the exposure to the stimuli would be interesting. The number of brands evaluated, or the category of products used, could be construed as limitations as well. Comparisons between products with or without an ethical load, with a high or low level of emotional attachment, etc., could be included. | The limitations that this research presents are in terms of the sample design used. Because the sample is not a probability sampling, the results cannot be generalized to the rest of the Chilean college student population. Regarding the methodology used, the immediate effects on the participants are measured through exercises that are provided immediately after exposure to the placement in the movies. An analysis of the effects of placement after a few weeks of having concluded the exposure to the stimuli would be interesting. The number of brands evaluated, or the category of products used, could be construed as limitations as well. Comparisons between products with or without an ethical load, with a high or low level of emotional attachment, etc., could be included. | ||
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Duke, C. & Carlson, L. (1993). A Conceptual Approach to Alternative Memory Measures for Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 15, 1-14. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5d). | Duke, C. & Carlson, L. (1993). A Conceptual Approach to Alternative Memory Measures for Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 15, 1-14. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5d). | ||
| − | Eisend, M. (2009). A Cross-Cultural Generalizability Study of | + | Eisend, M. (2009). A Cross-Cultural Generalizability Study of Consumers' Acceptance of Product Placements in Movies. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 31(1), 15-25. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5f). |
Goode, A. (2007). The Implicit and Explicit Role of Ad Memory in Ad Persuasion: Rethinking the Hidden Persuaders. International Journal of Market Research, 49(1), 95-116. (http://goo.gl/VsnZmu) (05-05-2013). | Goode, A. (2007). The Implicit and Explicit Role of Ad Memory in Ad Persuasion: Rethinking the Hidden Persuaders. International Journal of Market Research, 49(1), 95-116. (http://goo.gl/VsnZmu) (05-05-2013). | ||
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Gupta, P.B. & Lord, K.R (1998). Product Placement in Movies: The Effect of Prominence and Mode on Audience Recall. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 20(1), 47-59. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5g). | Gupta, P.B. & Lord, K.R (1998). Product Placement in Movies: The Effect of Prominence and Mode on Audience Recall. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 20(1), 47-59. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5g). | ||
| − | Ho, S-H., Lin, Y-L. & Yang, Y.T. (2011). In-Game Advertising: | + | Ho, S-H., Lin, Y-L. & Yang, Y.T. (2011). In-Game Advertising: Consumers' Attitude and the Effect of Product Placements on Memory. African Journal of Business Management, 5(24), 10117-10127. (http://goo.gl/77tIoc) (05-05-2013). |
Jusufovic-Karisik, V. (2014). 20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media. Journal of Economic and Social Studies, 4(2). (DOI: http://doi.org/t5h). | Jusufovic-Karisik, V. (2014). 20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media. Journal of Economic and Social Studies, 4(2). (DOI: http://doi.org/t5h). | ||
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Khalbous, S., Vianelli, D., Domanski, T., Dianoux, C. & Maazoul, M. (2013). International Journal of Marketing Studies, 5(2). (DOI: http://doi.org/t5k). | Khalbous, S., Vianelli, D., Domanski, T., Dianoux, C. & Maazoul, M. (2013). International Journal of Marketing Studies, 5(2). (DOI: http://doi.org/t5k). | ||
| − | Law, S. & Braun, K.A. (2000). | + | Law, S. & Braun, K.A. (2000). I'll Have What She's Having: Gauging the Impact of Product Placement on Viewers. Psychology and Marketing, 17(12), 1059-1075. (DOI: http://doi.org/dgz6wf). |
Lehu, J. & Bressoud, E. (2009). Recall of Brand Placement in Movies: Interactions between Prominence and Plot Connection in Real Conditions of Exposure. Recherche et Applications en Marketing, 24(1), 7-26. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5s). | Lehu, J. & Bressoud, E. (2009). Recall of Brand Placement in Movies: Interactions between Prominence and Plot Connection in Real Conditions of Exposure. Recherche et Applications en Marketing, 24(1), 7-26. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5s). | ||
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Russell, C.A. (2002). Investigating the Effectiveness of Product Placements in Television Shows: The Role of Modality and Plot Connection Congruence on Brand Memory and Attitude. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 306-318. (DOI: http://doi.org/dr5zfn). | Russell, C.A. (2002). Investigating the Effectiveness of Product Placements in Television Shows: The Role of Modality and Plot Connection Congruence on Brand Memory and Attitude. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 306-318. (DOI: http://doi.org/dr5zfn). | ||
| − | Salazar, C. (2012). Product Placement: El otro récord de | + | Salazar, C. (2012). Product Placement: El otro récord de 'Stefan v/s Kramer'. La Nación. (http://goo.gl/5H2hrX) (03-05-2013). |
Shapiro, S. & Krishnan, S.H. (2001). Memory-Based Measures for Assessing Advertising Effects: A Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Memory Effects. Journal of Advertising, 30, 1-13. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5n). | Shapiro, S. & Krishnan, S.H. (2001). Memory-Based Measures for Assessing Advertising Effects: A Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Memory Effects. Journal of Advertising, 30, 1-13. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5n). | ||
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Srivastava, R.K. (2014). Product Placement by Global Brands as an Alternative Strategy: Is it Worth in Emerging Market? Journal of Strategic Marketing, 1-16. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5m). | Srivastava, R.K. (2014). Product Placement by Global Brands as an Alternative Strategy: Is it Worth in Emerging Market? Journal of Strategic Marketing, 1-16. (DOI: http://doi.org/t5m). | ||
| − | Uribe, R. & Campo, M. (2008). El | + | Uribe, R. & Campo, M. (2008). El 'product placement' como herramienta promocional. Economía & Administración, 155, 24-28. |
Van-den-Broek, P., Risden, K., Fletcher, C. & Thurlow, R. (1996). A Landscape View of Reading: Fluctuating Patterns of Activation and the Construction of a Stable Memory Representation (pp. 165-187). In B. Britton & A. Graesser (Eds.), Models of Understanding Text. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. | Van-den-Broek, P., Risden, K., Fletcher, C. & Thurlow, R. (1996). A Landscape View of Reading: Fluctuating Patterns of Activation and the Construction of a Stable Memory Representation (pp. 165-187). In B. Britton & A. Graesser (Eds.), Models of Understanding Text. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. | ||
Latest revision as of 11:04, 28 March 2019
Pulsa aquí para ver la versión en Español (ES)
Abstract
The use of product placement as a marketing communication tool is based on the inclusion of products or brands in the scene where the action is. The use of this tool has benefits for both the producer of the movie, as well as for brands and / or products. There is currently no consensus in the academic world on how to measure the effectiveness of this communication tool. There is scarce scientific evidence in Latin America, and in Chile this format has been used in television programs, and only recently in movies. The objective of this research is to study the influence of placement in movies on explicit memory (unaided recall and brand awareness) and implicit memory (purchase intention) through the implementation of an experiment performed on a sample of 205 Chilean college students, according to the different types of placement in movies: brands as part of the background, used by a main character, and connected with the plot. The results indicate that the higher the degree of integration of the brand with the plot of the film, the higher the probability of stimulating the explicit memory of participants and thereby unaided recall and brand awareness, providing empirical evidence regarding the learning of consumer behavior through placement as a communication tool.
1. Introduction
Starting in the 1970s product placement became known as an alternative communications tool and its use quickly grew mainly due to the «audience fragmentation» phenomenon. This phenomenon arises as a consequence of the difficulty in effectively reaching the target market due to the ever increasing offer of advertising possibilities and the lack of interest shown by audiences (Karniouchina, Uslay & Erenburg, 2011; Miles, 2009; Eisend, 2009). Product, or brand, placement has been defined as «the paid inclusion of brand products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual media, as part of the programming done by mass communication media» (Karrh, 1998). This concept implies integrated planning of a non-obstructive commercial message within media entertainment space, so that individuals do not perceive it as an explicit attempt to commercially influence them (Balasubramanian, 1994).
In this respect, the corresponding literature distinguishes different types of placement in movies, such as: verbal, visual or audiovisual, according to its importance within a scene (subtle or prominent) (Gupta & Lord, 1998), degree of integration with the plot, and its relationship with the main character(s) (Russell, 1998; d'Astous & Séguin, 1999). Starting with the landscape model, which exposes the information activation patterns in an individual's memory as part of the process of comprehension (Willes & Danielova, 2009; Van-den-Broek et al., 1996; Van-den-Broek, Yuhtsuen & Linderholm, 1999), visual «placement» has been categorized into three levels according to the degree of integration of the brand with the plot. In the first place, the brand may be presented as part of the background, shown in a scene but without being used. Secondly, it may be used by one of the main characters, but not in a manner relevant to the plot. And thirdly, it may be connected to the storyline, playing an integral part in the development of the movie (Yang & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007).
Placement in Chile has mainly been used in TV shows, TV series, and reality shows. In the last few years, this has been extended to movies and series (Salazar, 2012). This industry is still, however, in a developmental stage (Uribe & Campo, 2008). In fact, most of the studies have been applied to American audiences, with very little investigative evidence existing regarding Latin America (Khalbous & al., 2013).
Answering the question «how effective can this communications tool be?» is key when evaluating the use of placement. The academic world has not yet reached a consensus regarding what would be the most appropriate way to measure the effects of placement. The most commonly used methods are memory measurements based on the kind of processing used by the audiences (recall, awareness, methods of choice and purchase intention, etc.) (Williams, Petrosky, Hernández & Page 2011; Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Reijmersdal, Neijens & Smith, 2009; Duke & Carlson, 1993). The effects of placement have generally been analyzed through cognitive answers, for example, using memory and brand awareness tests (Pokrywczynski, 2005).
Tests that predict the behavioral response of individuals, such as purchase intention or brand selection methods, produce, however, different results and do not appear to be correlated with the cognitive measures (Law & Braun, 2000). In this sense, and from an educommunicational point of view, the existing literature has determined that the interaction of audiences with movies or television series could generate a «transfer effect» due to the fact that certain social consumer environments are shown in these media, and these could be adopted (Noguti & Russel, 2014). Therefore, the present research studies the influence of placement in movies on explicit memory (unaided recall and brand awareness), and on implicit memory (purchase intention), on a sample of Chilean college students, according to the different types of placement: 1) brands as part of the background; 2) brands used by the main character(s); 3) brands connected to the storyline.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Types of placement in movies
The types of placement in movies have been categorized in a wide range of methods (Kaur, 2014). Gupta and Lord (1998), Verhellen, Dens and De-Pelsmacker (2013) proposed a two dimensional focus to classify the incorporation of a brand within a movie. The first is related to the incorporation of the brand which can be: 1) visual, through a product, logo, or other brand identifier; 2) in audio format, through the mention of the brand; 3) as an audiovisual combination. These authors state that visual placement is used more often, whereas the audiovisual form is the most expensive and, possibly, the most complex to integrate. The second dimension is related to the level of prominence, or degree in which the placement works as a central focus point, categorized as «prominently» when it is presented in a highly visible manner, or as «subtly» when the product or brand identifier is presented away from the central focus point.
Similarly, Russel (1998) classified the types of placement in three dimensions. The visual dimension or «screen placement», implying the appearance of the brand on screen, which can be presented in different degrees according to the number of appearances, the recording style of the product or brand, etc. The audio dimension or «script placement», implying a verbal mention of the brand within the dialogue and may vary depending on the frequency that the brand is mentioned, as well as the emphasis and tone of voice used. And the third dimension, a connection to the storyline or «plot placement», which refers to the high or low level of intensity that the product is integrated into the central plot and storyline, and may be presented either visually or in an audio manner.
Authors d'Astous and Séguin (1999) catalogued three types of television product placement: 1) «implied placement», in which a brand is presented on a show without being formally mentioned, playing a passive or contextual role where the benefits or attributes of the product are not showcased; 2) «explicitly integrated placement», in which the brand or product plays an active role on a show, having its attributes and benefits demonstrated and showcased formally; 3) «non-integrated explicit placement», where the brand is formally referred to but is not integrated into the contents of the program.
Based on the landscape model, Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2007) categorized visual placement into three different levels according to the degree of integration of the brand with the plot. The brand may be shown in a scene with the main character(s) presented as part of the background, but without being used; the brand may be used by a main character but not in a fashion relevant to the storyline; or the brand can be connected to the story playing an integral part in the outcome of the movie. The main discovery of these authors is related to the fact that brand placement connected to the storyline has a higher probability of being explicitly remembered in the future.
2.2. Placement effectiveness
DeLorme and Reid (1999) propose that placement effectiveness may depend on a number of factors such as: the perception of consistency between the brand and the context of the scene in the film, previous consumer experiences with the brand, empathy towards the character(s), level of spectator involvement with the plot of the movie, the traditional advertisement consciousness that the brand has developed in the past, and individual differences such as age, interests, aspirations, etc. There is still, however, a discussion as to which are the most convenient methods to measure placement effectiveness with audiences.
Research has shown that individuals use their explicit memory to recover information related to an ad or exposure to a past event, implying a deliberate or purposeful effort to try to access the previous information (Shapiro & Krishnan, 2001; Jusufovic-Karisik, 2014). Law and Braun (2000) conclude that two cognitive processes, brand recall and awareness, affect the same kind of memory (explicit), and that the impact of product placement in movies could be measured using memory or unaided recall tests (Wiles & Danielova, 2009). Shapiro and Krishnan (2001), on the other hand, explain explicit memory as an automatic or unconscious recovery process that is generally measured by requesting that the individual complete or finish phrases after having been exposed to a message, or through brand selection or purchase intention behavioral activities without referring to the episode to which the individual had been exposed to previously. These processes that affect the subconscious memory of individuals play an important role by influencing behavior, for example, in consumption (Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Krishnan & Trappey, 1999; Goode, 2007; Padmanabhan & Jena, 2013; Srivastava, 2014).
Regarding types of placement, it has been found that brands that are highly integrated with the plot are more often remembered and recognized (Lehu & Bressoud, 2009; Russell, 2002), as well as placement that involves a major character (d'Astous, Séguin & Chartier, 2000; Redker, Gibson & Zimmerman, 2013). Hypotheses 1 and 2 are formulated for the purpose of investigating the degree in which each type of placement influences unaided recall and brand awareness.
" H1: The rate of unaided recall in participants exposed to placement in movies is greater for brand placement connected to the storyline, followed by brand placement used by a main character, and lastly brand placement as part of the background.
" H2: The rate of brand awareness in participants exposed to placement in movies is greater for brand placement connected to the storyline, followed by brand placement used by a main character, and lastly brand placement as part of the background.
In spite of the fact that there is less evidence related to implicit memory, different authors have confirmed a possible influence in audiences using assisted memory recovery activities (Chung & Szymanski, 1997; Auty & Lewis, 2004; Morton & Friedman, 2002; Cholinski, 2012). Regarding the types of placement, however, the evidence is unclear. In any event, for the purpose of corroborating the general effect of placement in the implicit purchase intention activity after the experiment in the control group, a third hypothesis for study presents itself.
" H3: Exposure of participants to placement in film positively and significantly influences the subsequent purchase intention of brands.
Finally, for the purpose of identifying the existence of a relationship between the effects of each type of placement on purchase intention and the landscape model, the following research question is posed.
" RQ1: Does the purchase intention activity produce different results according to the type of placement to which the participants are exposed?
2.3. Method
In order to corroborate H1, H2, H3, and RQ1, a sample of 205 male and female students from different colleges in Santiago, Chile were selected through a non-probability sampling (convenience sampling)(44% male, and 56% female), between 19 and 26 years of age, through the months of January and March of 2013. The distribution of the sample is detailed in the following table 1.
Additionally, approximately 80% of the sample mentioned that they go to the movies between one and two times a month, and 72% stated that they saw, on average, one to two movies a week.
The experiment was performed in a laboratory setting. Each respondent observed an edited video that exhibited extracts from different movies that contained two brands and only one of the three visual placement types.
3. Results
3.1. Explicit memory
So as to be able to analyze whether or not the placement types predict and are related to the unaided recall variables and brand awareness, Binary Logistic Regression (BLR), procedure was applied. In this case, the dependent and dichotomical variable «brand recall» was defined, said variable adopting the value «1» when the participant remembered at least one brand, and the value «0» when this did not occur. Subsequently, so as to analyze the existence of significant statistical differences among the three experimental groups, the ANOVA analysis was used.
3.1.1. Unaided recall exercise
The BLR analysis for the dependent variable «brand recall» indicated the presence of a significant model as well as the existence of a significant statistical relationship with the «placement type variable» (p= 0.000). Subsequently, the ANOVA analysis for the recall exercise resulted in a statistically significant F (2, 147) of 39,169 (p=0.000); therefore, there are significant differences between the performances of the three experimental groups. To identify whether or not the differences were significant in all of the group combinations, post hoc tests were conducted. Due to the fact that the variances homogeneity test indicated an insignificant Levene statistic (p=0.058), the equality of population variances hypothesis and the main statistics are accepted for this condition (Tukey, LSD, Bonferroni, etc.), producing significant statistical differences (p<0.05) for all of the combinations among the three experimental groups. As can be seen in table 2 and figure 1, the recall rate for the group exposed to the brand connected with the storyline was 68%, which indicates the percentage of brands that are correctly recalled by the participants. This percentage is greater than the results shown by the group exposed to the brand used by a main character (30%). Both of these groups obtain higher percentages than the group exposed to the brand as part of the background (15%). Therefore, hypothesis 1 which indicates the degree in which unaided recall is influenced by each of the placement types is supported.
3.1.2. Awareness exercise
The BLR analysis for the dependent variable «awareness» indicated the presence of a significant model and the existence of a significant statistical relationship with the «placement type» variable (p= 0.000). The ANOVA analysis resulted in an F (2, 147) of 46,597 (p=0.000), therefore showing the existence of significant differences between the awareness rate averages for the three experimental groups. A significant Levene statistic (p=0,000) was obtained following the steps for the unaided recall exercise. Therefore, the Tamhane, Dunnett and Games-Howell statistics are used, resulting in significant statistical differences (p<0.05) between the behaviors of the brand connected with the storyline and the two other groups. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found, however, between the brand used by a main character and the brand as part of the background. For brand placement connected with the storyline the rate of recognition is 96%, indicating an elevated percentage of brands correctly recognized by this group. For the brand used by a main character, the rate is less with a recognition percentage of 58%. The brand used as part of the background has an even lower recognition percentage at 44% (table 2). Because of the fact that the statistical difference between the brand placement used by a main character and the brand as part of the background cannot be corroborated with the aforementioned tests, hypothesis 2 which indicates the degree in which awareness is influenced by each type of placement is partially supported.
Figure 1. Relationship between the types of placement and percentages of recall and awareness.
3.2. Implicit memory3.2.1. Purchase intention exercise
For the purchase intention exercise, the BLR procedure for analyzing whether or not the existence of placement in film is related to, and can predict, purchase intention behavior for brands after exposure to the stimulus, was used. The «purchase intention» dependent variable was defined for this. This variable could have a value of «1» when the participant chose at least one of the brands that appeared in the film extracts shown, and a value of «0» if not. The independent, or explicative, variable corresponded to the group that was assigned to each surveyed participant (experimental group or control group). Subsequently, the ANOVA test was used as a factor so as to compare the answers between the experimental groups and the control group (Pope, 2002).
Analysis of the BLR for the «purchase intention» dependent variable indicated the presence of a significant model and the existence of a statistically significant relationship according to the group to which the participants were assigned (p=0,03), and according to the types of placement (p=0,000). In this sense, it is worth noting that the group that was exposed to placement in movies has a greater influence in purchase intention when compared to the control group. The ANOVA test performed among the participants of the experimental group and the control group so as to analyze the placement effect on purchase intention (Hypothesis 3), resulted in a significant F (1, 313) statistic of 10,108 (p=0,002). The percentage of purchase intention in the experimental group was 36%, as seen in table 3 and figure 2, higher that the results obtained in the control group (24%). In other words, the percentage of brands that appear in movies that are chosen by the participants was 12% higher than the percentage of these same brands chosen by the control group which had not been previously exposed to the placement. Hypothesis 3, which refers to the influence on the purchase intention of the participants prior to the placement exposure in the films, is therefore supported.
With reference to the existence of differences between the three experimental groups (RQ1), the «purchase intention rate of variation» variable was generated. The ANOVA analysis resulted in a significant F (2, 147) of 4,244 (p=0,016), implying the existence of differences between average variations in purchase intentions of the three groups (Table 3). When observing the multiple comparisons tests the only significant relationship occurs between the brand used by a main character (22% variation in the intention), and the brand as part of the background (5% variation). No significant results for the brand connected to the storyline (8% variation) and the rest of the groups were found. Therefore, it is worth noting that, regarding research question RQ1, brand placement used by a main character has a greater impact in the variation in purchase intention when compared to the brand as part of the background. However, no significant relationships of the brand connected to the storyline are found.
Figure 2. Purchase intentions results for the experimental and control groups.
4. Discussion and conclusions
This research explored the influence of placement in movies on explicit memory (unaided recall and brand awareness), as well as implicit memory (purchase intention), on a sample of college students, regarding the different types of placements in film: 1) brands as part of the background; 2) brands used by a main character; 3) brands connected to the storyline through a landscape model, that explains the levels of activation of the information within memory in the comprehension processes.
The results obtained indicated that the use of brand placement connected with the storyline produces better results with regards to explicit memory, consistent with previous empirical evidence. The brand used by a main character, acting as a facilitator or support element of a scene, follows with lower results; this results in an intermediate level of explicit memory activation. Lastly, the brand used as part of the background which incorporates information that is not necessary for understanding the plot, therefore representing the lowest level of explicit memory activation. In this sense, use of placement in film, specifically when the brand is connected with the storyline, would imply a higher probability of stimulating explicit memory and, with this, recall and recognition.
The most relevant find of this research is related to the effect that placement apparently produces in the implicit memory of individuals, which is measured in this study through a purchase intention test. Regarding the types of placement, only a higher significant influence of the brand used by a main character is identified, compared to brand placement as part of the background. It has been mentioned that subtle placements could have a greater influence in implicit exercises, as explained by Ho, Ling and Young, 2011 in their placement study for video games; however, the results of the present study were the opposite. In this sense, no relationship with the comprehension of information model proposed by the landscape model is found, consistent with the evidence that supports that implicit memory would not be influenced by the way that the information is processed in the mind. A possible explanation could be that when the brand is used by a character the sense of familiarity increased, which could work as heuristic at the moment of brand selection, causing the so called «transference effect» due to the learning of certain consumer social environments.
In this way, the use of placement in movies, and more specifically the brand used by a main character, would stimulate implicit memory when the product already exists in the market because this would reinforce the individual's behavioral answers such as purchase intention or effective purchasing, working as a learning consumer stimulus; in other words, educommunication. This could eventually end up being detrimental if we apply these findings to restricted consumer products, such as alcohol (Noguti & Russel, 2014). In these cases, the individual could automatically, or unconsciously, recover the stimuli to which they had been exposed to during placement and thus have their conduct influenced.
The limitations that this research presents are in terms of the sample design used. Because the sample is not a probability sampling, the results cannot be generalized to the rest of the Chilean college student population. Regarding the methodology used, the immediate effects on the participants are measured through exercises that are provided immediately after exposure to the placement in the movies. An analysis of the effects of placement after a few weeks of having concluded the exposure to the stimuli would be interesting. The number of brands evaluated, or the category of products used, could be construed as limitations as well. Comparisons between products with or without an ethical load, with a high or low level of emotional attachment, etc., could be included.
Challenges for future investigations would include, for example, the incorporation of a greater number of variables for the understanding of implicit memory and the higher influence found when the brand is used by a main character, time of exposure to the brands, previous consumer experiences, brand familiarity, empathy towards the characters, or individual variables. Due to the fact that the use of placement is increasing more and more each day throughout the world, another future challenge could be the expansion of the study towards other effective measures of placement. Finally, and considering that most of the studies done in this area are performed within laboratory environments, another suggestion presents itself regarding the collection of information from the sample: field research; for example, at movie theater exits, this could improve the external validity of the experiment.
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Resumen
El uso del «product placement» como una herramienta de comunicación en marketing, se basa en la inclusión de productos o marcas en el escenario donde se desarrolla la acción. La utilización de esta herramienta presenta beneficios tanto para el productor del largometraje, como también para las marcas y/o productos. Actualmente no existe en el mundo académico un consenso respecto a cómo medir la efectividad de esta herramienta de comunicación. En Latinoamérica existe una escasa evidencia científica, y en Chile, este formato ha sido utilizado en espacios televisivos, y recientemente se está incursionando en el cine. El objetivo de esta investigación es estudiar la influencia del «placement» en las películas sobre la memoria explícita (recuerdo espontáneo y reconocimiento de marca) y memoria implícita (intención de compra) a través de la aplicación de un experimento a una muestra de 205 estudiantes universitarios chilenos, según los distintos tipos de «placement» en las películas: marcas como parte del fondo, usadas por un personaje principal, y conectadas con la historia. Los resultados indican que cuanto mayor es el grado de integración de la marca con la trama de la película, mayor es la probabilidad de estimular la memoria explícita de los estudiantes y con esto el recuerdo y reconocimiento de una marca, aportando evidencia empírica en relación con el aprendizaje de conductas de consumo por medio del «placement» como herramienta de comunicación.
1. Introducción
A partir de los años setenta, el «product placement» se dio a conocer como una herramienta de comunicación alternativa, experimentando un rápido crecimiento en su uso, principalmente debido al llamado fenómeno de «fragmentación de audiencias». Este fenómeno surge como consecuencia de la dificultad para llegar eficientemente al mercado objetivo, debido a la ampliación de la oferta publicitaria y a la falta de interés por parte de las audiencias (Karniouchina, Uslay & Erenburg, 2011; Miles, 2009; Eisend, 2009). El «product» o «brand placement» ha sido definido como «la inclusión pagada de productos de marca o identificadores de marca, a través de medios de audio y/o visuales, dentro de la programación de los medios masivos de comunicación» (Karrh, 1998). Este concepto implica la integración planificada de un mensaje comercial en el espacio de entretenimiento de los medios de comunicación y pretende ser no obstructivo, de modo que los individuos no lo perciban como un intento de influencia comercial explícito (Balasubramanian, 1994).
En este sentido, la literatura distingue distintos tipos de «placement» en las películas tales como: verbal, visual o audiovisual, según notoriedad en la escena (sutil o prominente) (Gupta & Lord, 1998), grado de integración con la trama y su relación con el personaje principal (Russell, 1998; D’Astous & Séguin, 1999). A partir del modelo «landscape», que expone los patrones de activación de la información en la memoria de los individuos como parte del proceso de comprensión (Willes & Danielova, 2009; VandenBroek, Fletcher & Thurlow, 1996; VandenBroek, Yuhtsuen & Linderholm, 1999), el «placement visual» se ha categorizado en tres niveles según el grado de integración de la marca con la trama. En primer lugar, la marca puede presentarse como parte del fondo, expuesta en una escena, pero sin ser utilizada. En segundo lugar, puede ser usada por un personaje principal, pero no de una manera relevante en el argumento. Y en tercer lugar, puede estar conectada con la historia, funcionando como parte integral en el desarrollo de la película (Yang & RoskosEwoldsen, 2007).
En Chile, el «placement» se ha utilizado principalmente en programas de televisión, teleseries y reality shows. Y en los últimos años se ha extendido también hacia películas y series (Salazar, 2012), sin embargo, esta industria se encuentra todavía en desarrollo (Uribe & Campo, 2008). En efecto, la mayoría de los estudios han sido aplicados a audiencias estadounidenses existiendo escasa evidencia de estudios en Latinoamérica (Khalbous & al., 2013).
Al momento de evaluar la utilización de «placement» es clave intentar responder a la pregunta ¿cuán efectiva podría llegar a ser esta herramienta de comunicación? El mundo académico no ha logrado aún un consenso en cuál podría ser la manera más apropiada de medir los efectos del «placement». Las tareas más comúnmente utilizadas, son las medidas de memoria basadas en el tipo de procesamiento utilizado por las audiencias (explícito o implícito) y la naturaleza de las tareas que se requieren para medir estas memorias (recuerdo, reconocimiento, tareas de elección e intención de compra, etc.) (Williams, Petrosky, Hernández & Page 2011; Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Reijmersdal, Neijens & Smith, 2009; Duke & Carlson, 1993). Generalmente, los efectos del «placement» se han analizado a través de respuestas cognitivas, por ejemplo, usando pruebas de recuerdo y reconocimiento de marca (Pokrywczynski, 2005).
No obstante, pruebas que predicen la respuesta conductual de los individuos, como la intención de compra o tareas de elección de marca, producen resultados diferentes y parecen no estar correlacionadas con las medidas cognitivas (Law & Braun, 2000). En este sentido, desde el punto de vista de la educomunicación, la literatura determina que la interacción de las audiencias con las películas o series de televisión podría generar un «efecto transferencia» debido a que en ellas se muestran determinados entornos sociales de consumo, los cuales podrían llegar a ser adoptados (Noguti & Russel, 2014). Por tanto, la presente investigación estudia la influencia del «placement» en las películas sobre la memoria explícita (recuerdo espontáneo y reconocimiento de marca) y memoria implícita (intención de compra) para una muestra de estudiantes universitarios en Chile, según los distintos tipos de «placement»: 1) marcas como parte del fondo; 2) usadas por un personaje principal; 3) conectadas con la historia.
2. Material y métodos
2.1. Tipos de «placement» en películas
Diversas son las maneras en las que han sido categorizados los tipos de «placement» en las películas (Kaur, 2014). Gupta y Lord (1998), Verhellen, Dens y DePelsmacker (2013) propusieron un enfoque de dos dimensiones para clasificar la incorporación de una marca en una película. La primera se relaciona con la incorporación de la marca, la cual puede ser: 1) Visual, a través de un producto, logo u otro identificador de marca; 2) En formato de audio, a través de la mención de la marca; 3) Como una combinación audiovisual. Estos autores exponen que el «placement visual» es utilizado en mayor medida, mientras que la modalidad audiovisual es la más costosa y a la vez la más compleja de integrar. Y la segunda dimensión se relaciona con el nivel de prominencia o grado en que el «placement» actúa como foco central de atención, categorizándose de «prominente» cuando se presenta de manera altamente visible o como «sutil» cuando el producto o identificador de marca se presenta fuera del foco de atención principal.
De manera similar, Russell (1998) clasificó los tipos de «placement» a través de tres dimensiones. La dimensión visual o «screen placement», que implica la aparición de la marca en la pantalla, puede presentarse en distintos grados según la cantidad de presentaciones, el estilo de grabación del producto o marca, etc. La dimensión auditiva o «script placement», que implica una mención verbal de la marca en el argumento y puede variar dependiendo de la frecuencia con la que la marca es mencionada, el énfasis y tono de voz usado. Y la tercera dimensión, conexión con la trama o «plot placement», hace referencia al alto o bajo nivel de intensidad con que se integra la marca en el argumento central de la historia y puede presentarse de manera visual o en audio.
Por su parte, D’Astous y Séguin (1999) catalogaron el «product placement» televisivo en tres tipos: 1) «Placement implícito», en el que una marca se presenta en un programa, sin ser mencionado de manera formal, jugando un rol pasivo o contextual, de modo que no se demuestran los beneficios o atributos del producto; 2) «Placement integrado explícitamente», en donde la marca o producto juega un rol activo en un programa, siendo mencionado formalmente y demostrando sus atributos y beneficios; 3) «Placement explícito no integrado», en el que se hace referencia formal de la marca, pero no es integrada en los contenidos del programa.
Yang y RoskosEwoldsen (2007), basados en el modelo «landscape» categorizaron el «placement visual» en tres diferentes niveles según el grado de integración de la marca con la trama. La marca puede presentarse como parte del fondo (background) o segundo plano, expuesta en una escena con un personaje principal. Pero sin ser utilizada; la marca puede ser usada por un personaje principal (used by character), pero no de una manera relevante en el argumento; o estar conectada con la historia (story connection), funcionando como una parte integral en el desarrollo de la película. El principal hallazgo de estos autores se relaciona con el hecho de que el «placement de marca» conectada con la historia tendría una mayor probabilidad de ser recordado explícitamente en el futuro.
2.2. Efectividad del «placement»
DeLorme y Reid (1999) proponen que la efectividad del «placement» puede depender de diversos factores tales como: la apreciación sobre la congruencia entre la marca y el contexto de la escena de la película, las experiencias de consumo previo con la marca, la empatía hacia los personajes, el nivel de implicación del espectador con el argumento de la película, la conciencia de publicidad tradicional que ha realizado la marca y diferencias individuales como edad, intereses, aspiraciones, etc. Sin embargo, aún existe discusión sobre cuáles son las medidas más convenientes para medir el efecto del «placement» en las audiencias.
Investigaciones indican que un individuo recurre a la memoria explicita para recuperar información sobre un anuncio o exposición a un evento pasado, que implica un esfuerzo deliberado o intencionado para intentar acceder a la información previa (Shapiro & Krishnan, 2001; JusufovicKarisik, 2014). Law y Braun (2000) concluyen que dos procesos cognitivos, el recuerdo y el reconocimiento de marca, afectan al mismo tipo de memoria (explícita) y que el impacto del «product placement» en las películas, se podría medir mediante las pruebas de memoria o recuerdo espontáneo (Wiles & Danielova, 2009). Por otra parte, Shapiro y Krishnan (2001) explican la memoria implícita como un proceso de recuperación automático o inconsciente que generalmente es medida solicitándoles al individuo que completen o terminen palabras después haber estado expuestos a un mensaje, o a través de tareas conductuales de elección de marcas e intención de compra, sin hacer referencia al episodio previo de exposición. Estos procesos que afectan la memoria subconsciente de los individuos, juegan un rol importante influenciando el comportamiento, como por ejemplo el consumo (Bressoud, Lehu & Russell, 2010; Goode, 2007; Padmanabhan & Jena, 2013; Srivastava, 2014).
En relación a los tipos de «placement», se ha encontrado que marcas altamente integradas con la trama se recuerdan y reconocen mayormente (Lehu & Bressoud, 2009; Russell, 2002), al igual que para «placement» acompañados de un personaje principal (D'Astous, Séguin & Chartier, 2000; Redker, Gibson & Zimmerman, 2013). Las hipótesis 1 y 2 son formuladas, con el propósito de indagar el grado en que cada uno de los tipos de «placement» influencia el recuerdo espontáneo y reconocimiento de marca.
• H1: La tasa de recuerdo espontáneo para los participantes expuestos al «placement» en las películas es mayor en el «placement de marca» conectada con la historia, seguido del «placement de marca» usada por un personaje principal, y por último el «placement de marca» como parte del fondo.
• H2: La tasa de reconocimiento para los participantes expuestos al «placement» en las películas es mayor en el «placement de marca» conectada con la historia, seguido del «placement de marca» usada por un personaje principal, y por último el «placement de marca» como parte del fondo.
A pesar de que existe una menor evidencia en cuanto a la memoria implícita, diversos autores han confirmado una posible influencia en las audiencias, utilizando tareas de recuerdo ayudado (Chung & Szymanski, 1997; Auty & Lewis, 2004; Morton & Friedman, 2002; Cholinski, 2012). Sin embargo, en relación a los tipos de «placement» la evidencia no es clara. Ahora bien, con el objetivo de corroborar el efecto general del «placement» en la tarea de intención de compra implícita posterior al experimento, en relación al grupo de control, se presenta la tercera hipótesis de estudio.
• H3: La exposición de los participantes al «placement» en las películas influye positiva y significativamente en la intención de compra posterior de las marcas.
Finalmente, con el fin de identificar la existencia de alguna relación entre los efectos de cada uno de los tipos de «placement» sobre la intención de compra y el modelo «landscape» se presenta la siguiente pregunta de investigación.
• PI1: ¿Posee la tarea de intención de compra rendimientos diferentes según el tipo de «placement» al que son expuestos los participantes?
2.3. Método
Con el fin de corroborar H1, H2, H3 y la PI1, se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística por conveniencia de 205 alumnos de diferentes universidades en Santiago de Chile, de ambos sexos (44% hombres y 56% mujeres) y de edades entre 19 y 26 años, entre los meses enero y marzo del 2013. En la tabla 1, se detalla la distribución de la muestra.
Como información adicional, alrededor de un 80% de la muestra mencionó asistir al cine entre una y dos veces al mes, y un 72% expresó ver en promedio una a dos películas a la semana.
El experimento se realizó en un ambiente de laboratorio. Cada encuestado observó un video editado que exhibió extractos de diferentes películas que contenían dos marcas y solo uno de los tres tipos de «placement visuales».
3. Resultados
3.1. Memoria explícita
Para analizar si los tipos de «placement» predicen y se relacionan con las variables de recuerdo espontáneo y reconocimiento de marca, se aplicó el procedimiento de la Regresión Logística Binaria (RLB). En este caso, se definió la variable dependiente y dicotómica «recuerdo», que tomó el valor «1» cuando el participante recordó al menos una marca y «0» en caso contrario. Posteriormente, para analizar la existencia de diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los tres grupos experimentales, se utilizó el análisis de varianza ANOVA.
3.1.1. Tarea de recuerdo espontáneo
El análisis de la RLB para la variable dependiente «recuerdo», señaló la presencia de un modelo significativo y la existencia de una relación estadísticamente significativa con la variable «tipo de placement» (p= 0,000). Posteriormente, el análisis ANOVA para la tarea de recuerdo arrojó un F (2, 147) de 39,169 estadísticamente significativo (p= 0,000), por tanto, existen diferencias significativas entre los rendimientos de los tres grupos experimentales. Para identificar si las diferencias fueron significativas en todas las combinaciones de grupos, se realizaron las pruebas post hoc. Debido a que la prueba de homogeneidad de varianzas indicó un estadístico de Levene no significativo (p=0,058), se acepta la hipótesis de igualdad de varianzas poblacionales y los principales estadísticos para esta condición (Tukey, LSD, Bonferroni, etc.) arrojando diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p< 0,05) para todas las combinaciones entre los tres grupos experimentales. Como se aprecia en la tabla 2 y figura 1, la tasa de recuerdo para el grupo expuesto a la marca conectada con la historia fue de 68%, lo que indica la proporción de las marcas que son recordadas correctamente por los participantes. Esta tasa es superior a la arrojada por el grupo expuesto a la marca usada por un personaje principal (30%), y a la vez ambos grupos obtienen mayores tasas al de marca como parte del fondo (15%). Por tanto, la hipótesis 1 que indica el grado en que el recuerdo espontáneo es influenciado por cada uno de los tipos de «placement», es apoyada.
3.1.2. Tarea de reconocimiento
El análisis de la RLB para la variable dependiente «reconocimiento», señaló la presencia de un modelo significativo y la existencia de una relación estadísticamente significativa con la variable «tipo de placement» (p=0,000). El análisis ANOVA, arrojó un F (2, 147) de 46,597 (p=0,000), por lo tanto existen diferencias significativas entre las medias de las tasas de reconocimiento para los tres grupos experimentales. Siguiendo los pasos de la tarea de recuerdo espontáneo, se obtuvo un estadístico de Levene significativo (p=0,000), por lo que en este caso se usan los estadísticos Tamhane, Dunnett y GamesHowell, los que arrojan diferencias estadísticamente significativas (p < 0,05) entre los rendimientos para la marca conectada con la historia y los dos grupos restantes. Sin embargo, no se encontraron diferencias significativas (p > 0,05) entre la marca usada por un personaje principal y la marca como parte del fondo. Para el «placement de marca» conectada con la historia, la tasa de reconocimiento es de 96%, lo que indica una elevada proporción de marcas que son correctamente reconocidas por este grupo. Para la marca usada por un personaje principal, el rendimiento es inferior con una tasa de reconocimiento de 58%, y en menor medida para la marca como parte del fondo, con una tasa de 44% (tabla 2). Debido a que no se puede corroborar en los test anteriores la diferencia estadística entre el «placement de marca» usada por un personaje principal y el de marca como parte del fondo, la hipótesis 2 que indica el grado en que el reconocimiento es influenciado por cada uno de los tipos de placement es parcialmente apoyada.
Figura 1. Relación entre los tipos de «placement» y tasas de recuerdo y reconocimiento.
3.2. Memoria implícita3.2.1. Tarea de intención de compra
En el caso de la tarea de intención de compra, se utilizó el procedimiento de la RLB para analizar si la existencia de «placement» en las películas se relaciona y predice el comportamiento de la intención de compra de las marcas posterior a la exposición del estímulo. Para esto, se definió la variable dependiente «intención de compra», la cual podía tomar el valor «1» cuando el participante elegía al menos una de las marcas que aparecían en los extractos de películas mostrados y «0» en caso contrario. La variable independiente o explicativa correspondió al grupo al que fue asignado cada encuestado (grupo experimental o grupo de control). Posteriormente, se utilizó el test ANOVA de un factor para comparar las respuestas entre los grupos experimentales y grupo de control.
El análisis de la RLB para la variable dependiente «intención de compra», señaló la presencia de un modelo significativo y la existencia de una relación estadísticamente significativa según el grupo al que fueron asignados los participantes (p=0,03) y según los tipos de «placement» (p=0,000). En este sentido, se puede mencionar que el grupo que estuvo expuesto al «placement» en las películas posee una mayor influencia en la intención de compra comparada con el grupo de control. El test ANOVA realizado entre los participantes del grupo experimental y grupo de control, para analizar el efecto del «placement» en la intención de compra (Hipótesis 3), arrojó un estadístico F (1, 313) de 10,108 significativo (p=0,002). Como se observa en la tabla 3 y figura 2, la tasa de intención de compra en el grupo experimental fue de 36%, superior al rendimiento obtenido en el grupo de control (24%). Es decir, la proporción de las marcas que aparecen en las películas y que son elegidas por los participantes, fue un 12% superior a la proporción de estas mismas marcas elegidas por el grupo de control, el cual no había estado expuesto previamente al «placement». La hipótesis 3, que referida a la influencia en la intención de compra de los participantes previa exposición al «placement» en las películas, es entonces apoyada.
En referencia a la existencia de diferencias entre los tres grupos experimentales (PI1) se generó la variable, «tasa de variación en la intención de compra». El análisis ANOVA arrojó un F (2, 147) significativo de 4,244 (p=0,016), lo que implica la existencia de diferencias entre los promedios de variación de la intención de compra de los tres grupos (tabla 3). Observando las pruebas de comparaciones múltiples, la única relación significativa ocurre entre la marca usada por un personaje principal (22% de variación en la intención) y la marca como parte del fondo (5% de variación). No se encontraron resultados significativos para la marca conectada con la historia (8% de variación) y los demás grupos. En relación a la pregunta de investigación PI1 entonces, se puede mencionar que el «placement de marca» usada por un personaje principal posee un mayor impacto en la variación de intención de compra, en comparación a la marca como parte del fondo, sin embargo no se presentan relaciones significativas con la marca conectada con la historia.
Figura 2. Rendimientos de tasa de intención de compra para grupos experimental y de control.
4. Discusión y conclusiones
La presente investigación exploró la influencia del «placement» en las películas sobre la memoria explícita (recuerdo espontáneo y reconocimiento de marca) y memoria implícita (intención de compra) de una muestra estudiantes universitarios, en relación con los distintos tipos de «placement» en las películas: 1) Marcas como parte del fondo; 2) Usadas por un personaje principal; 3) Conectadas con la historia, a través del modelo «landscape», que explica los niveles de activación de la información en la memoria en los procesos de comprensión.
Los resultados obtenidos indicaron que la utilización de «placement de marca» conectada con la historia obtiene mejores rendimientos en relación a la memoria explícita, lo cual es consistente con la evidencia empírica previa. Con tasas menores, le sigue la marca usada por un personaje principal, que actúa como facilitador o apoyo para darle sentido a una escena, por lo que se encuentra en un nivel intermedio de activación en la memoria explícita. Por último, se encuentra la marca como parte del fondo, que incorpora la información que no es necesaria para la comprensión del argumento y que por lo tanto es la que representa el menor nivel de activación en la memoria explícita. En este sentido, la utilización de placement en películas, específicamente cuando la marca aparece conectada con la historia, implicaría una mayor probabilidad de estimular la memoria explícita y con esto el recuerdo y reconocimiento.
El hallazgo más relevante de la presente investigación se relaciona con el efecto que parece producir el placement en la memoria implícita de los individuos, lo que es medido en el presente estudio a través de una prueba de intención de compra. En cuanto a los tipos de «placement», solo se identifica una influencia significativa mayor en la marca usada por un personaje principal, en comparación al «placement» de marca como parte del fondo. Se ha mencionado que «placement sutiles» podrían influir mayormente en las tareas implícitas, como explicaron Ho, Ling y Young, 2011 en su estudio de «placement» para videojuegos, sin embargo, en esta investigación los resultados fueron contrarios. En este sentido, no se encuentra una relación con el modelo de comprensión de la información que propone el modelo «landscape», lo que es consecuente con la evidencia que soporta que la memoria implícita no se vería influenciada por el modo en que se procesa la información en la memoria. Una posible explicación podría ser que cuando la marca es usada por un personaje, aumenta el sentido de familiaridad, lo que podría funcionar como una heurística al momento de elección de las marcas, provocando el llamado «efecto transferencia» debido al aprendizaje de determinados entornos sociales de consumo.
De esta forma, la utilización de «placement» en las películas, y específicamente la marca utilizada por un personaje principal, estimularía la memoria implícita, cuando los productos son existentes en el mercado, ya que reforzaría las respuestas conductuales de los individuos como la intención o compra efectiva funcionando como un estímulo de inducción al consumo, hecho a considerar desde la educomunicación. Lo cual podría llegar a ser perjudicial si referimos estos hallazgos a productos de consumo restringidos, como el alcohol (Noguti & Russel, 2014). En estos casos, el individuo podría recuperar de manera automática o inconsciente los estímulos a los que estuvo expuesto durante el «placement» y ver influenciada su conducta.
Respecto de las limitaciones que presenta esta investigación, se relacionan con el diseño muestral utilizado. La muestra en cuestión no se recolecta de manera probabilística, por lo que los resultados no son generalizables a la población de universitarios chilenos. En cuanto a la metodología usada, se miden los efectos inmediatos en los participantes, mediante tareas que son proporcionadas seguidamente a la exposición al «placement» en las películas. Interesante podría ser el análisis de los efectos del «placement» luego de semanas realizada la exposición a los estímulos. Otras limitaciones podrían relacionarse con el número de marcas evaluadas o las categorías de productos utilizadas, donde se podrían integrar también comparaciones entre productos con o sin carga ética, de bajo o alto involucramiento, etc.
Desafíos para futuras investigaciones incluirían incorporar un mayor número de variables para el entendimiento de la memoria implícita y la mayor influencia hallada cuando la marca es usada por un personaje principal, por ejemplo, tiempos de exposición de las marcas, experiencias de consumo previo y familiaridad de marca, la empatía hacia los personajes o variables individuales. Debido a que el uso del «placement» se está incrementando cada vez más en el mundo, otro desafío a futuro podría ser el hecho de expandir el estudio a otras medidas de efectividad del «placement». Finalmente, otra sugerencia se presenta en la toma de datos de la muestra, la cual podría realizarse mediante una investigación de campo, por ejemplo, a la salida de los cines, teniendo en cuenta que la mayoría de los estudios en este ámbito se realizan en ambientes de laboratorio. De esta forma, podría mejorarse la validez externa del experimento.
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Document information
Published on 31/12/14
Accepted on 31/12/14
Submitted on 31/12/14
Volume 23, Issue 1, 2015
DOI: 10.3916/C44-2015-18
Licence: CC BY-NC-SA license
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