Latest revision as of 14:23, 30 November 2021

Abstract

This paper explores the design profession’s evolving understanding of lateral design. It shows how the United States building codes’ handling of seismic and wind forces has changed over time, often in response to extreme events or technological developments. Prior to the early 1900s most buildings were designed without an explicitly defined lateral force resisting system. Up to that time period earthquakes and strong wind events produced little in the way of code requirements to address lateral forces. It was the advent of steel and high-rise construction in the late 19th Century that triggered a need to consider lateral loads. During the early 20th Century little consensus existed regarding the lateral forces that needed to be resisted. Wind loading provisions began appearing in the codes of large cities in the early 1900s, but it would not be until the 1930s that seismic provisions started to be codified, and then only in California. Throughout the 20th Century significant lateral events have continued to expose vulnerabilities that have been subsequently addressed with changes in construction detailing and code restrictions. In the mid-1900s regional building codes developed, focusing on the lateral hazards present in their locality. By 2000 these regional codes were replaced by a national code, and lateral design has now started to shift from prescriptive requirements towards performance-based design. This paper will help structural engineers better understand the historic building stock by exploring how lateral design has evolved in the US over the last hundred years.

Full document

References

[1] Reitherman, Robert K. Earthquakes and Engineers: An International History. ASCE Press, Reston (2012) p 46.

[2] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 47.

[3] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 85.

[4] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 85-93.

[5] American Standard Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures (A58). National Bureau of Standards. United States Government Printing Office, Washington (1945) p 30.

[6] Green, Melvyn. Building Codes for Existing and Historic Buildings. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (2012).

[7] Rossber, Jim and Leon, Roberto T. Evolution of Codes in the USA. National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (2013).

[8] Friedman, Donald. Historical Building Construction: Design, Materials & Technology. W.W. Norton & Company Inc., New York (2010).

[9] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 147-151.

[10] Derry, T.K. and Williams, T.I. A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. Dover Publications, New York, NY (1993) p 481-486.

[11] Kidder, Frank E. The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket-Book. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1908) p 1082.

[12] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 147-151.

[13] Kidder. The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket-Book. p 1082.

[14] Trautwine, John C. The Civil Engineer’s Pocket-Book. Renouf Publishing Co., Wallingford (1872).

[15] Pocket Companion Containing Useful Information and Tables Appertaining to the Use of Steel. Carnegie Steel Company. Pittsburg (1903) p 58.

[16] Freitag, Joseph Kendall. Architectural Engineering with Especial Reference to High Building Construction. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1909) p 282.

[17] Tobriner, Stephen. Bracing for Disaster: Earthquake-Resistant Architecture and Engineering in San Francisco, 1838-1933. Heyday Books, Berkeley (2006) p 166.

[18] Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures (A58) p 30-32.

[19] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 109 & 648.

[20] Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures (A58) p 30-32.

[21] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 147-151.

[22] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 650.

[23] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 200.

[24] Pregnoff, M.V. Connections: EERI Oral History Series, Michael Pregnoff and John Rinner. Earthquake Engineering Institute, Oakland (1996) p.14-17.

[25] Freitag. Architectural Engineering. p 249.

[26] Kidder. The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket-Book. p 1082-1083.

[27] Kidder, Frank E. and Nolan, Thomas. The Architects’ and Builders’ Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York (1921) p 1171-1193.

[28] Freeman, John R. Earthquake Damage and Earthquake Insurance. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1932) p. 172.

[29] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 200.

[30] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 223.

[31] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 161, 222

[32] Rossber. Evolution of Codes in the USA.

[33] Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures (A58).

[34] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 33, 288.

[35] Dixon, Rick. The Florida Building Code – Florida’s Response to Hurricane Risk. Presentation by Florida Building Commision (2009).

[36] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 272, 476

[37] SEAOC Seismology Committee. Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary. Structural Engineers Association of California (1974), p-7C.

[38] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 585.

[39] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 371.

[40] Dixon, Rick. The Florida Building Code – Florida’s Response to Hurricane Risk.

[41] Knezevich, John W. Hurricane-Driven Building Code Enhancements. Structure Magazine (July 2017).

[42] FEMA. Hurricanes’ Impact on Florida’s Building Codes & Standards. FEMA Mitigation Section Technical Services Branch (2005).

[43] Reitherman. Earthquakes and Engineers. p 585.

[44] Green. Building Codes for Existing and Historic Buildings.

[45] Rossber. Evolution of Codes in the USA.

[46] Housner, G.W. Historical View of Earthquake Engineering, Proceedings of the Eighth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco (1984).