Latest revision as of 01:05, 23 March 2021

Abstract

In the future, automated cars may feature external human&ndash

machine interfaces (eHMIs) to communicate relevant information to other road users. However, it is currently unknown where on the car the eHMI should be placed. In this study, 61 participants each viewed 36 animations of cars with eHMIs on either the roof, windscreen, grill, above the wheels, or a projection on the road. The eHMI showed &lsquo

Waiting&rsquo

combined with a walking symbol 1.2 s before the car started to slow down, or &lsquo

Driving&rsquo

while the car continued driving. Participants had to press and hold the spacebar when they felt it safe to cross. Results showed that, averaged over the period when the car approached and slowed down, the roof, windscreen, and grill eHMIs yielded the best performance (i.e., the highest spacebar press time). The projection and wheels eHMIs scored relatively poorly, yet still better than no eHMI. The wheels eHMI received a relatively high percentage of spacebar presses when the car appeared from a corner, a situation in which the roof, windscreen, and grill eHMIs were out of view. Eye-tracking analyses showed that the projection yielded dispersed eye movements, as participants scanned back and forth between the projection and the car. It is concluded that eHMIs should be presented on multiple sides of the car. A projection on the road is visually effortful for pedestrians, as it causes them to divide their attention between the projection and the car itself.

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The different versions of the original document can be found in:

• http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info11010013 under the license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by

• http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:90d73da7-f205-4aa0-aba7-788a531f4511 under the license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

• https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/1/13/pdf

• http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:90d73da7-f205-4aa0-aba7-788a531f4511,

http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info11010013 under the license cc-by

• https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/1/13,

https://doaj.org/toc/2078-2489

• https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/1/13/pdf,

http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info11010013

• https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/11/1/13/pdf,

https://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/journals/information/information11.html#EismaBBHTW20,

https://www.narcis.nl/publication/RecordID/oai%3Atudelft.nl%3Auuid%3A90d73da7-f205-4aa0-aba7-788a531f4511,

https://doi.org/10.3390/info11010013,

https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid:90d73da7-f205-4aa0-aba7-788a531f4511/datastream/OBJ/download,

https://academic.microsoft.com/#/detail/2998554369 under the license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/