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All children and young adolescents with whom we speak will have been born after the 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States. Terrorism has unleashed attacks against the cities in which people of that age live ever since they have been able to reason. If in the 1930s, children feared wild beasts and thunder storms, successive generations would live in fear of nuclear warfare, and today fear is awoken in children by the thought of tsunamis and hurricanes and terrorism (Garbarino & al., 2015). Teachers would benefit from the background information that is needed to explain the context of terrorist attacks and the existence of a State organization that attempts to counter terrorism. As stated by Jaramillo (2005), teachers should be able to choose from among the different tools available for their educational needs. | All children and young adolescents with whom we speak will have been born after the 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States. Terrorism has unleashed attacks against the cities in which people of that age live ever since they have been able to reason. If in the 1930s, children feared wild beasts and thunder storms, successive generations would live in fear of nuclear warfare, and today fear is awoken in children by the thought of tsunamis and hurricanes and terrorism (Garbarino & al., 2015). Teachers would benefit from the background information that is needed to explain the context of terrorist attacks and the existence of a State organization that attempts to counter terrorism. As stated by Jaramillo (2005), teachers should be able to choose from among the different tools available for their educational needs. | ||
− | Verbal information and vicarious learning are known to have a role in prompting anxiety in young children and causing them to succumb to fear (Field & Lawson, 2003), to which the role of television in developing | + | Verbal information and vicarious learning are known to have a role in prompting anxiety in young children and causing them to succumb to fear (Field & Lawson, 2003), to which the role of television in developing children's perceptions of personal vulnerability may be added (Romer & al., 2003). In fact, the change from fear of 'thunder' to fear of 'terrorism' is, without doubt, due to the notorious relation that exists between consumption of the communications media and the perception of threats and vulnerability that, although present in most individuals, is of particular concern among children. Although younger children are in general more exposed and affected by the news than older children and adults, catastrophic news such as the attacks on New York, Madrid, London, Paris, and Barcelona can have an intense impact at all ages. One study completed with children from schools in the city of New York brought to light a wide range of mental health problems (Hoven & al., 2002), which included agoraphobia (15%), anxiety due to separation (12%), and disorder due to post-traumatic stress (11%) as consequences of the attacks. The children who reported greater exposure to the news showed higher ratios of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) than those children with less exposure to television. The impact of terrorism on young children through their exposure to the communications media and social media was observed in thirteen studies that Pfefferbaum (2018) compiled on the matter. |
− | Children learn through observation and imitation, so the role of their intermediaries, such as parents and school teachers, in controlling which messages are communicated and how those messages are conveyed is a fundamental one (Comer & Kendall, 2007; Punch, 2002). Parents may do little more than recreating the stereotypes associated with James Bond films and the novels of John Le Carré to which the children may have previously been exposed through the media, while school is a territory where spies1 are not found (Quintelier, 2015). However, while the information voids are easy to define, it is more complex to confront the stereotypes; the set of | + | Children learn through observation and imitation, so the role of their intermediaries, such as parents and school teachers, in controlling which messages are communicated and how those messages are conveyed is a fundamental one (Comer & Kendall, 2007; Punch, 2002). Parents may do little more than recreating the stereotypes associated with James Bond films and the novels of John Le Carré to which the children may have previously been exposed through the media, while school is a territory where spies1 are not found (Quintelier, 2015). However, while the information voids are easy to define, it is more complex to confront the stereotypes; the set of 'positive or negative' beliefs that one group of people hold in the form of cognitive schemes that influence the way they process social information (McGarty & al., 2002). This view fits in with the proposal of van Deth & al. (2011), which is used in this investigation, that distinguishes between 'Political Awareness' (awareness of institutions) and 'Functional Knowledge' (what they do) when gathering information in the field. |
The central objective of the educational system is from very early ages to transmit commonly shared values such as human rights and the freedoms that characterize democratic societies (Starkey, 2012). As reflected in Gardner (1991), perceptions of the police and the world of law enforcement among children represent a struggle between the goodies and the baddies. If we follow DiSessa (1982: 465), who sustained that appropriate opinions on the police need to be established during the first years of infancy, it would also follow that the existence of the intelligence services as an institution working to prevent terrorist attacks and in hot pursuit of the perpetrators should be communicated to the younger citizens of a democracy. | The central objective of the educational system is from very early ages to transmit commonly shared values such as human rights and the freedoms that characterize democratic societies (Starkey, 2012). As reflected in Gardner (1991), perceptions of the police and the world of law enforcement among children represent a struggle between the goodies and the baddies. If we follow DiSessa (1982: 465), who sustained that appropriate opinions on the police need to be established during the first years of infancy, it would also follow that the existence of the intelligence services as an institution working to prevent terrorist attacks and in hot pursuit of the perpetrators should be communicated to the younger citizens of a democracy. | ||
− | The constant appearance of | + | The constant appearance of 'secret' agencies in the television news combating terrorism in the city, terrorist alerts, simulated evacuations, telephone surveillance& does nothing to improve the situation. The studies by Klein & al. (2009), DeVoe & al. (2011) and Carpenter & al. (2012) on the reactions of young children following terrorist attacks showed that children who were informed by their carers expressed less anxiety. Therefore, if the participation of children in a democracy is to be free from fear, it is important to work with them in these initial phases of their lives, because this period of their life, as Sapiro (2004) has demonstrated, is essential in the formation of their points of view and their commitment towards good citizenship. |
− | The differences between well-informed and poorly informed citizens can be dramatic (Delli Carpini, & Keeter, 1996: 272). Therefore, transmitting a better and a complete image of the intelligence services to younger citizens, when still forming their opinions on the concept of democracy, and transmitting what this political form of governance implies, will have two positive consequences. On the one hand, its consequence will be greater legitimacy and trust among citizens; and, on the other, it will imply increased decision-making capacity and informed opinions on the actions carried out by the intelligence services (Díez-Nicolás, 2012: 162). Our project is inspired by that same logic; it contributes to bridging the information gaps and the existing stereotypes on the intelligence services through the development and testing of this pedagogic material, in such a way that the impact of historic events | + | The differences between well-informed and poorly informed citizens can be dramatic (Delli Carpini, & Keeter, 1996: 272). Therefore, transmitting a better and a complete image of the intelligence services to younger citizens, when still forming their opinions on the concept of democracy, and transmitting what this political form of governance implies, will have two positive consequences. On the one hand, its consequence will be greater legitimacy and trust among citizens; and, on the other, it will imply increased decision-making capacity and informed opinions on the actions carried out by the intelligence services (Díez-Nicolás, 2012: 162). Our project is inspired by that same logic; it contributes to bridging the information gaps and the existing stereotypes on the intelligence services through the development and testing of this pedagogic material, in such a way that the impact of historic events 'all the greater at earlier ages (Schumann & Scott, 1989)' can be mitigated. |
− | Ever since the 1960s, studies have been conducted on what the perceptions of young children are towards the police. However, the authors are unaware of any studies on the same topic, but with regard to spies. The logic behind this lack of studies is, in our opinion, that, unlike the police | + | Ever since the 1960s, studies have been conducted on what the perceptions of young children are towards the police. However, the authors are unaware of any studies on the same topic, but with regard to spies. The logic behind this lack of studies is, in our opinion, that, unlike the police 'and to some extent the military too' children and adolescents have no direct encounters with spies. Among other reasons, spies work undercover, children and adolescents are never likely to meet them or to interact with them, neither will they have close family members who identify themselves as spies, nor are spies identified with a logotype, and they have no visible installations that can be visited. Therefore, although we may learn from the methodology of those studies, comparisons with the way in which schoolchildren perceive the different law enforcement institutions of a democratic State are invalid. Nevertheless, we can indeed draw out some interesting reflections from these experiences for our study. |
− | With regard to the methodology, we have found studies that measure knowledge and/or opinion at two points in time between which the children have been | + | With regard to the methodology, we have found studies that measure knowledge and/or opinion at two points in time between which the children have been exposed to some form of input, as in this contribution. For example, after a specific activity (Hopkins & al., 1992) or after interacting with the police at a school visit in the playground (Derbyshire, 1968). We also find studies with schools where the police are permanently stationed for crime-prevention and mediation tasks and other studies on schools where the police have no permanent presence (Hopkins & al. 1992), as well as studies completed after screening different videos to an audience of schoolchildren with fragments of police films and television series (Low & Durkin, 2001). |
It must not be thought that all of the conclusions drawn from these studies can be generalized. For some authors, children not only distrust the police, but they also show a lack of understanding or hold misperceptions on the role of the police in society (Brown & Benedict 2002; Hurst & Frank 2000). The views of young people are in many studies worse than the views expressed by children (Loader, 1996; McAra & McVie, 2010), due to young people making greater use of public spaces. They also have a greater likelihood of entering into contact and indeed conflict with the police, including negative experiences of policing, as young people start to socialize more with peers in public spaces free from parental care. In studies from North America, trust in the police amongst ethnic minority communities is found to be considerably lower than in white communities (Hurst & al., 2000; Flexon & al., 2009). Evidence of gender differences in attitudes towards the police is mixed, with some studies finding no differences (Hinds, 2007), while others find that either males (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999) or females (Flexon & al., 2009) hold more negative views. | It must not be thought that all of the conclusions drawn from these studies can be generalized. For some authors, children not only distrust the police, but they also show a lack of understanding or hold misperceptions on the role of the police in society (Brown & Benedict 2002; Hurst & Frank 2000). The views of young people are in many studies worse than the views expressed by children (Loader, 1996; McAra & McVie, 2010), due to young people making greater use of public spaces. They also have a greater likelihood of entering into contact and indeed conflict with the police, including negative experiences of policing, as young people start to socialize more with peers in public spaces free from parental care. In studies from North America, trust in the police amongst ethnic minority communities is found to be considerably lower than in white communities (Hurst & al., 2000; Flexon & al., 2009). Evidence of gender differences in attitudes towards the police is mixed, with some studies finding no differences (Hinds, 2007), while others find that either males (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999) or females (Flexon & al., 2009) hold more negative views. | ||
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2.1. Preparation of the animated video | 2.1. Preparation of the animated video | ||
− | The initial objective was to prepare two animated videos for children between 8 and 11 years in age and for young adolescents between 12 and 16 years in age2 through which to explain the role of an intelligence service | + | The initial objective was to prepare two animated videos for children between 8 and 11 years in age and for young adolescents between 12 and 16 years in age2 through which to explain the role of an intelligence service 'the Spanish CNI' in a democratic society3. The use of different formats was considered during the design of the project: comic, animated video, and story. However, directing the project at the generations that fit within what Palfrey & Gasser (2008) have baptized the generation of 'digital natives' led us to select the animated video rather than the comic or the story. In particular, the video format was justified insofar as i) it permits a combination of verbal, visual, textural, graphical, and musical mediums; ii) audio-visual channels are the principal on-line format that the target population consumes; and, iii) it can be reproduced on different channels (television, Internet) and devices (mobiles, computers, tablets, etc.), permitting individual screenings or as part of educational programs for citizenship. |
The messages that were used to convey the information on the role of an intelligence service in a democratic State were known to the authors from previous research (Díaz-Fernández, 2005, 2016). The final list of messages included in the videos appears in Table 1. There were differences in the internal layout of the script, if those messages were: 1) Explicit (conveyed through explicit sentences in the text) or implicit (conveyed through images), or if they were; 2) Transversal (appearing throughout the video) or specific (appearing at a specific time in the video). | The messages that were used to convey the information on the role of an intelligence service in a democratic State were known to the authors from previous research (Díaz-Fernández, 2005, 2016). The final list of messages included in the videos appears in Table 1. There were differences in the internal layout of the script, if those messages were: 1) Explicit (conveyed through explicit sentences in the text) or implicit (conveyed through images), or if they were; 2) Transversal (appearing throughout the video) or specific (appearing at a specific time in the video). | ||
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2.2. Participants | 2.2. Participants | ||
− | A total of 1,092 children and adolescents (n=1,092) participated in the study (with a confidence interval of 95% and margin of error of ±3%). The participants were drawn from eight Spanish schools in the cities of Cadiz, Jerez de la Frontera, Mairena del Aljarafe, Gines, and Seville. 489 (44.2%) of the participants were boys, and 603 (55.8%) were girls. The age of the sample fluctuated between 8 and 16 years old, with an average of 12.14 years (SD=2.54). The educational levels of the school children | + | A total of 1,092 children and adolescents (n=1,092) participated in the study (with a confidence interval of 95% and margin of error of ±3%). The participants were drawn from eight Spanish schools in the cities of Cadiz, Jerez de la Frontera, Mairena del Aljarafe, Gines, and Seville. 489 (44.2%) of the participants were boys, and 603 (55.8%) were girls. The age of the sample fluctuated between 8 and 16 years old, with an average of 12.14 years (SD=2.54). The educational levels of the school children corresponded to two educational stages: the group of 'Primary Education' (EP) was composed of 495 participants (45.3%), and the group of 'Secondary Education' (ESO), of 597 participants (54.7%). In addition, each sample is close to the average size of the samples habitually used in studies on knowledge and evaluation of the police such as those by Moretz (1980) with 137 participants, Hurst & al. (2000) with 852, Nihart & al. (2005) with 1,029, and Sindall & al. (2016) with 1,500. The schools were selected in accordance with two criteria to guarantee the representativeness of the socio-economic and demographic data: i) model of management and funding (public, private, and state-assisted); and, ii) (low, medium, and high) socio-economic level. The schools were therefore categorized as follows: private/high (1); state-assisted/high (2); state-assisted/medium (2); public/medium (2); and, public/low (2). All the schools were in large, medium, and small cities with populations of between 700,000 and 13,000 inhabitants. |
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The questionnaire was structured into four sections corresponding to the four variables under analysis with a total of 30 items: 1) Sociodemographic data; 2) Knowledge of CNI; 3) Stereotypes on the work of intelligence service agents; 4) attitudes towards CNI. The following describes the content of each of the four sections. | The questionnaire was structured into four sections corresponding to the four variables under analysis with a total of 30 items: 1) Sociodemographic data; 2) Knowledge of CNI; 3) Stereotypes on the work of intelligence service agents; 4) attitudes towards CNI. The following describes the content of each of the four sections. | ||
− | In sociodemographic data, only the educational stage (EP or ESO) and the sex of the participant were recorded. This decision was agreed with the teaching centres, to avoid having to request the informed consent of the parents when gathering a minimum of personal information (Thomas & | + | In sociodemographic data, only the educational stage (EP or ESO) and the sex of the participant were recorded. This decision was agreed with the teaching centres, to avoid having to request the informed consent of the parents when gathering a minimum of personal information (Thomas & O'Kane, 1998). |
− | Knowledge of the CNI was measured through six items with three possible responses: one correct, another wrong, and a third that affirmed no knowledge ( | + | Knowledge of the CNI was measured through six items with three possible responses: one correct, another wrong, and a third that affirmed no knowledge (Don't know/No opinion). These responses scored between 0 and two following the criteria of Mondak (1999), according to which the assumption of not knowing is an intermediate measurement between right and wrong knowledge. Three levels were therefore defined: 0=wrong knowledge; 1=don't know; and 2=right knowledge. This measurement obtained acceptable scores for internal consistency (a=.95). |
− | The stereotypes on the work of the intelligence agents were measured with 16 items divided into: 1) Stereotypes associated with the influence of the communications media (4 items) (a=.88); 2) Stereotypes associated with police work (4 items) (a=.96); 3) Stereotypes associated with military work (4 items) (a=.50); and, iv) stereotypes associated with the work of private detectives (4 items) (a=.93). As may be seen, the stereotypes associated with military work was the only block with no reliable internal consistency (a=.70). An analysis of the correlations matrix identified one of the items as related in a negative manner with the other items of the construct ( | + | The stereotypes on the work of the intelligence agents were measured with 16 items divided into: 1) Stereotypes associated with the influence of the communications media (4 items) (a=.88); 2) Stereotypes associated with police work (4 items) (a=.96); 3) Stereotypes associated with military work (4 items) (a=.50); and, iv) stereotypes associated with the work of private detectives (4 items) (a=.93). As may be seen, the stereotypes associated with military work was the only block with no reliable internal consistency (a=.70). An analysis of the correlations matrix identified one of the items as related in a negative manner with the other items of the construct ('work together in a group'), so this item was removed from the final analysis, thereby obtaining greater internal consistency and reliability (a=.81). Each item was positively expressed (for example, 'spies are secret') and the participants had to show their degree of agreement or disagreement with the affirmation on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where 1 was 'completely disagree', and 5 was 'completely agree', and where point 3 marked the intermediate point, 'neither agree nor disagree'. For the students of EP, emoticons were shown alongside the scale that expressed each of the grades, so that they would better understand the test responses. |
− | The attitudes towards CNI were measured through six items on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where one was | + | The attitudes towards CNI were measured through six items on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where one was 'completely disagree' and 5 'completely agree', and where point 3 marked the intermediate point, 'neither agree nor disagree'. Items 2, 3 and six were formulated in positive terms when describing the CNI, where one was considered as a completely negative attitude towards the CNI and five as a completely positive attitude towards CNI. During the preparation of the database, the scores for items 1, 4 and five that were formulated in negative terms, were inverted (1=5; 2=4; 4=2; 5=1) before the analysis was completed. In this way, high scores in the sum of items indicated a favourable attitude towards the CNI. This measurement system yielded acceptable scores for internal consistency reliability (a=.97). |
2.4. Procedure | 2.4. Procedure | ||
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====3. Analysis and results==== | ====3. Analysis and results==== | ||
− | The results obtained after the first administration of the questionnaire are shown in Table 2. As may be seen, the | + | The results obtained after the first administration of the questionnaire are shown in Table 2. As may be seen, the 'average' level of knowledge of the participants was low, with 95.9% of participants giving responses between 0 'wrong knowledge' and 1 'no knowledge'. It was, in addition, observed that both the standard deviation and the variance were small. These data allowed us to conclude that both the EP and the ESO students held little or no knowledge of the CNI and its functions. |
[[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en034.jpg|center|px|]] | [[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en034.jpg|center|px|]] | ||
− | The second variable, | + | The second variable, 'stereotypes' received a higher score than the neutral value of three (3='neither agree nor disagree'). A priori, this result might indicate that the participants were so unaware of the matter that they were unable to identify each of the stereotypes included in the questionnaire. However, the analysis by type of stereotype 'associated with the influence of the communications media, police work, military work, and the work of private detectives' yielded different results. In Table 3 it may be seen that the stereotypes associated with the communications media obtained the highest scores. The most representative features that the participants employed to refer to the work of a spy were, in the first and second place, 'spies follow people who don't know they are being followed' (100% scored it with a 5, 'completely agree') and 'they infiltrate dangerous places' (70.3% scored it with a 5, 'completely agree'). As with the variable 'knowledge', the standard deviation and the variance were small, from which it may be understood that the scores for the stereotypes were very similar. |
[[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en035.jpg|center|px|]] | [[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en035.jpg|center|px|]] | ||
− | Finally, with regard to the variable | + | Finally, with regard to the variable 'attitudes', it may be seen that the participants had in their majority negative attitudes towards CNI (Mean=2.04; Median=1.84; Mode=1.83) to a very similar extent. Specifically, the items for which the lowest scores were obtained, in first and second place, were 'they are undercover, and I don't know whether they are spying on me' and 'I don't trust them to work for the Spanish people'. These scores provide evidence that the participants perceive the CNI agents as 'unknown', 'undercover', and as 'dangerous' agents who cannot be controlled. No significant differences were observed for the three variables according to the educational stage or the sex of the participants. |
3.1. Effects of video screenings | 3.1. Effects of video screenings | ||
− | When analysing the differences between the scores obtained for the variables before and after the video screenings, it was concluded that those scores differed significantly with respect to all the items under analysis (p<0.001 and r>0.8 for all the t-tests). Under the variable | + | When analysing the differences between the scores obtained for the variables before and after the video screenings, it was concluded that those scores differed significantly with respect to all the items under analysis (p<0.001 and r>0.8 for all the t-tests). Under the variable 'knowledge' (t='151.850; p<0.001; r=0.97), the screening of the video increased knowledge of the work, the organization, and the function of the CNI in a democratic State in the total sample of participants (Meanbefore=.515; Meanafter=1.93). The effect size of the video screening for this variable (r2=0.95) allows us to affirm that 95% of the observed increase in the scores for 'knowledge' of participants was due to the screening of the videos. |
− | Statistically significant differences were also obtained for the variable | + | Statistically significant differences were also obtained for the variable 'stereotypes' before and after the video screening (t =193.849; p<0.001; r=97). In total, the scores for 'stereotypes' fell for all participants from 3.426 (Meanbefore=3.426) to 1.526 (Meanafter= 1.526). |
[[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en036.jpg|center|px|]] | [[Image:Draft_Content_313294011-66332-en036.jpg|center|px|]] | ||
− | Finally, the participants presented more favourable scores towards the CNI under the variable | + | Finally, the participants presented more favourable scores towards the CNI under the variable 'attitudes' after the video screening corresponding to their age group (t='177.682; p<0.001; r=0.98), with an effect size for the video screenings of r2=0.966, which allows us to affirm that 96.6% of the increase in the positive attitudes towards the CNI was due to the participants having watched the videos. In Tables 4 and 5, the average scores for 'knowledge', 'stereotypes' and 'attitudes' before and after the video screening are shown by educational stage and sex. |
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====4. Discussion and conclusions==== | ====4. Discussion and conclusions==== | ||
− | These data allow us to conclude that the screenings of the informative animated videos increased knowledge of the intelligence services, reduced stereotypes associated with the work of the agents, and increased positive attitudes towards the work of the CNI. Hence, our study has confirmed the starting hypothesis of the authors. The few studies completed with the police show a change before and after the children were exposed to the input, although not as significant, nor exclusively attributable to one variable, because, for example, in the studies with resident police officers, it was not possible to measure whether the impact was due to the presence of a police officer or because of the personality of the specific police officer present at the educational centre (Hopkins & al. 1992). However, the impact following the screening of the videos was higher than the impact reported in studies on the police force. Unlike the studies with the police, it was confirmed that the lack of direct contact with the intelligence service meant that the school children had weaker and more erroneous knowledge of their functions. However, despite that lack of knowledge, familiarity with the work | + | These data allow us to conclude that the screenings of the informative animated videos increased knowledge of the intelligence services, reduced stereotypes associated with the work of the agents, and increased positive attitudes towards the work of the CNI. Hence, our study has confirmed the starting hypothesis of the authors. The few studies completed with the police show a change before and after the children were exposed to the input, although not as significant, nor exclusively attributable to one variable, because, for example, in the studies with resident police officers, it was not possible to measure whether the impact was due to the presence of a police officer or because of the personality of the specific police officer present at the educational centre (Hopkins & al. 1992). However, the impact following the screening of the videos was higher than the impact reported in studies on the police force. Unlike the studies with the police, it was confirmed that the lack of direct contact with the intelligence service meant that the school children had weaker and more erroneous knowledge of their functions. However, despite that lack of knowledge, familiarity with the work 'spy' meant that they assumed the majority of stereotypes that are conveyed through the communications media in its broadest sense. |
Moreover, there is a great similarity between the results for students of both sexes with the results in Hinds (2007) when, in other studies, it appeared that either one or the other sex was the most critical (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999; Flexon & al., 2009). The population of Spanish school children is therefore of greater similarity than those of other countries. Immigration is highly concentrated in some cities, and within those, in specific neighborhoods and colleges, so much so that the impact of that variable was not measured. Nevertheless, the schools that were selected showed a very wide socioeconomic composition, encompassing conflictive neighborhoods and elite centres of a religious nature, which strengthens the similarity of the views that were gathered following the screening of the video. Neither was an abrupt cut-off point observed between age groups (children and young adolescents), as was detected by Sindall & al. (2016). | Moreover, there is a great similarity between the results for students of both sexes with the results in Hinds (2007) when, in other studies, it appeared that either one or the other sex was the most critical (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999; Flexon & al., 2009). The population of Spanish school children is therefore of greater similarity than those of other countries. Immigration is highly concentrated in some cities, and within those, in specific neighborhoods and colleges, so much so that the impact of that variable was not measured. Nevertheless, the schools that were selected showed a very wide socioeconomic composition, encompassing conflictive neighborhoods and elite centres of a religious nature, which strengthens the similarity of the views that were gathered following the screening of the video. Neither was an abrupt cut-off point observed between age groups (children and young adolescents), as was detected by Sindall & al. (2016). | ||
− | The importance of having pedagogic materials for parents and educators has been demonstrated, in order to widen knowledge of the security institutions among children and young people across the world where the attacks that strike at the heart of our cities appear to be increasingly recurrent. Moreover, an understanding of the knowledge that school children hold of these | + | The importance of having pedagogic materials for parents and educators has been demonstrated, in order to widen knowledge of the security institutions among children and young people across the world where the attacks that strike at the heart of our cities appear to be increasingly recurrent. Moreover, an understanding of the knowledge that school children hold of these 'secret' agencies would be relevant information with which to develop information campaigns directed at improving their role in a democratic State. This is a line of work that the authors wish to follow in a subsequent phase, in collaboration with professionals to develop didactic units that can be employed individually or jointly with other materials and campaigns. |
− | The videos will be used in future investigations to see whether they reduce the fear of terrorism and perceptions of insecurity among school children, considering variables such as hours of exposure to the news and use of social media. These variables have been proposed in the studies of Smith & Wilson (2002), which established that watching television was a predictor of sensations of fear, and that of Comer & al. (2008), which established that time viewing the television and Internet were variables associated with anxiety, perceptions of fear, and personal vulnerability. Our hypothesis for future research is that the improved knowledge provided by the videos would help to soothe the anxiety and the stress expressed by young people in reaction to the news of terrorist attacks when the story of the | + | The videos will be used in future investigations to see whether they reduce the fear of terrorism and perceptions of insecurity among school children, considering variables such as hours of exposure to the news and use of social media. These variables have been proposed in the studies of Smith & Wilson (2002), which established that watching television was a predictor of sensations of fear, and that of Comer & al. (2008), which established that time viewing the television and Internet were variables associated with anxiety, perceptions of fear, and personal vulnerability. Our hypothesis for future research is that the improved knowledge provided by the videos would help to soothe the anxiety and the stress expressed by young people in reaction to the news of terrorist attacks when the story of the 'baddies' confronts the story of the 'goodies' within a State that is there to protect them and yet, as has been confirmed, remained imperceptible. |
Notes | Notes | ||
− | 1 Although the authors prefer the term | + | 1 Although the authors prefer the term 'agent', for the purposes of clarity, the more common term of 'spy' was used with young children. |
2 The Spanish Educational System is organized in its obligatory phase in Primary Education (Educación Primaria) (EP), between 6 and 12 years in age and Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria) (ESO) from 12 to 16 years in age. | 2 The Spanish Educational System is organized in its obligatory phase in Primary Education (Educación Primaria) (EP), between 6 and 12 years in age and Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria) (ESO) from 12 to 16 years in age. | ||
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====References==== | ====References==== | ||
− | Barker, J., & Weller, S. (2003). | + | Barker, J., & Weller, S. (2003). 'Is it fun?' Developing children centred research methods. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23(1/2), 33-58. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443330310790435 |
Brown, B., & Benedict, W. (2002). Perceptions of the police: past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues, and policy implications. Policing, 25, 543-580. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210437032 | Brown, B., & Benedict, W. (2002). Perceptions of the police: past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues, and policy implications. Policing, 25, 543-580. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210437032 | ||
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Comer, J.S., & Kendall, P. (2007). Terrorism: the psychological impact on youth. Clinical Psychology, 14, 179-212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2007.00078.x | Comer, J.S., & Kendall, P. (2007). Terrorism: the psychological impact on youth. Clinical Psychology, 14, 179-212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2007.00078.x | ||
− | Comer, J.S., Furr, J.M., Beidas, R.S., Babyar, H.M., & Kendall, P.C. (2008). Media use and | + | Comer, J.S., Furr, J.M., Beidas, R.S., Babyar, H.M., & Kendall, P.C. (2008). Media use and children's perceptions of societal threat and personal vulnerability. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 622-630, https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802148145 |
Delli-Carpini, M., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven: Yale University Press. | Delli-Carpini, M., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven: Yale University Press. | ||
− | Derbyshire, R.L. (1968). | + | Derbyshire, R.L. (1968). Children's perceptions of the police: a comparative study of attitudes and attitude change. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 59(2), 183-190. https://doi.org/10.2307/1141938 |
DeVoe, E.R., Bannon, W., Klein, T.P., & Miranda-Julian, C. (2011). Young children in the aftermath of the World Trade Center attacks. Psychological Trauma, 3(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020567 | DeVoe, E.R., Bannon, W., Klein, T.P., & Miranda-Julian, C. (2011). Young children in the aftermath of the World Trade Center attacks. Psychological Trauma, 3(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020567 | ||
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Hinds, L. (2007). Building police-youth relationships: the importance of procedural justice. Youth Justice, 7(3), 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225407082510 | Hinds, L. (2007). Building police-youth relationships: the importance of procedural justice. Youth Justice, 7(3), 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225407082510 | ||
− | Hopkins, N., Hewstone, M., & Hantzi, A. (1992). Police-schools liaison and young | + | Hopkins, N., Hewstone, M., & Hantzi, A. (1992). Police-schools liaison and young people's image of the police: An intervention evaluation. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 203-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02435.x |
Hoven C.W., Duarte, C.S., Wu, P., & Rosen, C. (2002). The effects of the World Trade Center attack on New York City public school students. Initial report to the New York City Board of Education. New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York. | Hoven C.W., Duarte, C.S., Wu, P., & Rosen, C. (2002). The effects of the World Trade Center attack on New York City public school students. Initial report to the New York City Board of Education. New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York. | ||
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Jaramillo, A. (2005). Fictional video and scientific education: a paradoxical relationship. [Vídeo argumental y educación en ciencias: una relación paradójica]. Comunicar, 24, 121-128. | Jaramillo, A. (2005). Fictional video and scientific education: a paradoxical relationship. [Vídeo argumental y educación en ciencias: una relación paradójica]. Comunicar, 24, 121-128. | ||
− | Klein, T.P., Devoe, E.R., Miranda-Julian, C. and Linas, K. (2009). Young | + | Klein, T.P., Devoe, E.R., Miranda-Julian, C. and Linas, K. (2009). Young children's responses to September 11th: The New York City experience. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20200 |
Loader, I. (1996). Youth, Policing, and Democracy. Basingstoke: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230373839 | Loader, I. (1996). Youth, Policing, and Democracy. Basingstoke: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230373839 | ||
− | Low, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). | + | Low, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). Children's conceptualization of law enforcement on television and in real life. Legal & Criminological Psychology, 6, 197-214. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02435.x |
McAra, L., & McVie, S. (2010). Youth crime and justice: Key messages from the Edinburgh study of youth transitions and crime. Criminology and Criminal Justice 10(2), 179-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895809360971 | McAra, L., & McVie, S. (2010). Youth crime and justice: Key messages from the Edinburgh study of youth transitions and crime. Criminology and Criminal Justice 10(2), 179-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895809360971 | ||
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Mondak, J.J. (1999). Reconsidering the measurement of political knowledge. Political Analysis, 8(1), 57-82. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029805 | Mondak, J.J. (1999). Reconsidering the measurement of political knowledge. Political Analysis, 8(1), 57-82. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029805 | ||
− | Moretz, W.J. (1980). Kids to cops | + | Moretz, W.J. (1980). Kids to cops 'We think you're important, but we're not sure we understand you'. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 8(2), 220-224. |
Nihart, T., Lersch, K.M., Sellers, C.S., & Mieczkowski, T. (2005). Kids, cops, parents and teachers: exploring juvenile attitudes toward authority figures. Western Criminology Review, 6(1), 79-88. | Nihart, T., Lersch, K.M., Sellers, C.S., & Mieczkowski, T. (2005). Kids, cops, parents and teachers: exploring juvenile attitudes toward authority figures. Western Criminology Review, 6(1), 79-88. | ||
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Romer, D., Jamieson, K.H., & Aday, S. (2003). Television news and the cultivation of fear of crime. Journal of Communication, 53, 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb03007.x | Romer, D., Jamieson, K.H., & Aday, S. (2003). Television news and the cultivation of fear of crime. Journal of Communication, 53, 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb03007.x | ||
− | Sapiro, V. (2004). | + | Sapiro, V. (2004). 'Not your parents' political socialization: Introduction for a new generation. Annual Review, 7(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104840 |
Schumann H., & Scott, J. (1989). Generations and collective memories. American Sociological Review, 54, 359-81. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095611 | Schumann H., & Scott, J. (1989). Generations and collective memories. American Sociological Review, 54, 359-81. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095611 | ||
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Sindall, K., McCarthy, D.J., & Brunton-Smith, I. (2016). Young people and the formation of attitudes towards the police. European Journal of Criminology, 14(3), 344-364. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370816661739 | Sindall, K., McCarthy, D.J., & Brunton-Smith, I. (2016). Young people and the formation of attitudes towards the police. European Journal of Criminology, 14(3), 344-364. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370816661739 | ||
− | Smith, S.L. & Wilson, B.J. (2009). | + | Smith, S.L. & Wilson, B.J. (2009). Children's comprehension of and fear reactions to television news. Media Psychology, 4(1), 1-26, https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0401_01 |
Starkey, H. (2012). Human rights, cosmopolitanism and utopias: Implications for citizenship education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 42(1), 21-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2011.651205 | Starkey, H. (2012). Human rights, cosmopolitanism and utopias: Implications for citizenship education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 42(1), 21-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2011.651205 | ||
− | Thomas, N., & C. | + | Thomas, N., & C. O'Kane. (1998). The ethics of participatory research with children. Children and Society, 12, 336-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.1998.tb00090.x |
Van-Deth, J.W., Abendschön, S., & Vollmar, M. (2011). Children and politics: an empirical reassessment of early political socialization. Political Psychology, 32(1), 147-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00798.x | Van-Deth, J.W., Abendschön, S., & Vollmar, M. (2011). Children and politics: an empirical reassessment of early political socialization. Political Psychology, 32(1), 147-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00798.x |
Pulsa aquí para ver la versión en Español (ES)
Making the work of security organizations known to school children is a means of mitigating feelings of insecurity provoked by the diffusion of information on terrorist attacks in communications media and through social media. Whilst there is a longer tradition of projects to educate school children on the police and the armed forces, no comparable projects have been found on the intelligence services. With the objective of filling this gap, the authors designed and produced two animated educational videos for Spanish school children on the Spanish intelligence service: The National Intelligence Center (CNI). In this paper, the impact of the videos is measured in relation to the knowledge, the stereotypes, and the attitudes of school children towards the CNI. To do so, two questionnaires were administered to 1,092 school children aged 8 and 12, before and after viewing the videos. The results of the questionnaire prior to screening the videos showed that the school children held no knowledge of the intelligence services, and expressed highly developed stereotypes, and moderately negative attitudes towards them. Student-t tests for related samples were used to confirm the responses, on the basis of which it was found that the videos modified both knowledge and stereotyping, as well as attitudes towards the CNI. Specifically, following the screenings the knowledge of the school children improved, stereotyping diminished, and positive attitudes increased.
All children and young adolescents with whom we speak will have been born after the 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States. Terrorism has unleashed attacks against the cities in which people of that age live ever since they have been able to reason. If in the 1930s, children feared wild beasts and thunder storms, successive generations would live in fear of nuclear warfare, and today fear is awoken in children by the thought of tsunamis and hurricanes and terrorism (Garbarino & al., 2015). Teachers would benefit from the background information that is needed to explain the context of terrorist attacks and the existence of a State organization that attempts to counter terrorism. As stated by Jaramillo (2005), teachers should be able to choose from among the different tools available for their educational needs.
Verbal information and vicarious learning are known to have a role in prompting anxiety in young children and causing them to succumb to fear (Field & Lawson, 2003), to which the role of television in developing children's perceptions of personal vulnerability may be added (Romer & al., 2003). In fact, the change from fear of 'thunder' to fear of 'terrorism' is, without doubt, due to the notorious relation that exists between consumption of the communications media and the perception of threats and vulnerability that, although present in most individuals, is of particular concern among children. Although younger children are in general more exposed and affected by the news than older children and adults, catastrophic news such as the attacks on New York, Madrid, London, Paris, and Barcelona can have an intense impact at all ages. One study completed with children from schools in the city of New York brought to light a wide range of mental health problems (Hoven & al., 2002), which included agoraphobia (15%), anxiety due to separation (12%), and disorder due to post-traumatic stress (11%) as consequences of the attacks. The children who reported greater exposure to the news showed higher ratios of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) than those children with less exposure to television. The impact of terrorism on young children through their exposure to the communications media and social media was observed in thirteen studies that Pfefferbaum (2018) compiled on the matter.
Children learn through observation and imitation, so the role of their intermediaries, such as parents and school teachers, in controlling which messages are communicated and how those messages are conveyed is a fundamental one (Comer & Kendall, 2007; Punch, 2002). Parents may do little more than recreating the stereotypes associated with James Bond films and the novels of John Le Carré to which the children may have previously been exposed through the media, while school is a territory where spies1 are not found (Quintelier, 2015). However, while the information voids are easy to define, it is more complex to confront the stereotypes; the set of 'positive or negative' beliefs that one group of people hold in the form of cognitive schemes that influence the way they process social information (McGarty & al., 2002). This view fits in with the proposal of van Deth & al. (2011), which is used in this investigation, that distinguishes between 'Political Awareness' (awareness of institutions) and 'Functional Knowledge' (what they do) when gathering information in the field.
The central objective of the educational system is from very early ages to transmit commonly shared values such as human rights and the freedoms that characterize democratic societies (Starkey, 2012). As reflected in Gardner (1991), perceptions of the police and the world of law enforcement among children represent a struggle between the goodies and the baddies. If we follow DiSessa (1982: 465), who sustained that appropriate opinions on the police need to be established during the first years of infancy, it would also follow that the existence of the intelligence services as an institution working to prevent terrorist attacks and in hot pursuit of the perpetrators should be communicated to the younger citizens of a democracy.
The constant appearance of 'secret' agencies in the television news combating terrorism in the city, terrorist alerts, simulated evacuations, telephone surveillance& does nothing to improve the situation. The studies by Klein & al. (2009), DeVoe & al. (2011) and Carpenter & al. (2012) on the reactions of young children following terrorist attacks showed that children who were informed by their carers expressed less anxiety. Therefore, if the participation of children in a democracy is to be free from fear, it is important to work with them in these initial phases of their lives, because this period of their life, as Sapiro (2004) has demonstrated, is essential in the formation of their points of view and their commitment towards good citizenship.
The differences between well-informed and poorly informed citizens can be dramatic (Delli Carpini, & Keeter, 1996: 272). Therefore, transmitting a better and a complete image of the intelligence services to younger citizens, when still forming their opinions on the concept of democracy, and transmitting what this political form of governance implies, will have two positive consequences. On the one hand, its consequence will be greater legitimacy and trust among citizens; and, on the other, it will imply increased decision-making capacity and informed opinions on the actions carried out by the intelligence services (Díez-Nicolás, 2012: 162). Our project is inspired by that same logic; it contributes to bridging the information gaps and the existing stereotypes on the intelligence services through the development and testing of this pedagogic material, in such a way that the impact of historic events 'all the greater at earlier ages (Schumann & Scott, 1989)' can be mitigated.
Ever since the 1960s, studies have been conducted on what the perceptions of young children are towards the police. However, the authors are unaware of any studies on the same topic, but with regard to spies. The logic behind this lack of studies is, in our opinion, that, unlike the police 'and to some extent the military too' children and adolescents have no direct encounters with spies. Among other reasons, spies work undercover, children and adolescents are never likely to meet them or to interact with them, neither will they have close family members who identify themselves as spies, nor are spies identified with a logotype, and they have no visible installations that can be visited. Therefore, although we may learn from the methodology of those studies, comparisons with the way in which schoolchildren perceive the different law enforcement institutions of a democratic State are invalid. Nevertheless, we can indeed draw out some interesting reflections from these experiences for our study.
With regard to the methodology, we have found studies that measure knowledge and/or opinion at two points in time between which the children have been exposed to some form of input, as in this contribution. For example, after a specific activity (Hopkins & al., 1992) or after interacting with the police at a school visit in the playground (Derbyshire, 1968). We also find studies with schools where the police are permanently stationed for crime-prevention and mediation tasks and other studies on schools where the police have no permanent presence (Hopkins & al. 1992), as well as studies completed after screening different videos to an audience of schoolchildren with fragments of police films and television series (Low & Durkin, 2001).
It must not be thought that all of the conclusions drawn from these studies can be generalized. For some authors, children not only distrust the police, but they also show a lack of understanding or hold misperceptions on the role of the police in society (Brown & Benedict 2002; Hurst & Frank 2000). The views of young people are in many studies worse than the views expressed by children (Loader, 1996; McAra & McVie, 2010), due to young people making greater use of public spaces. They also have a greater likelihood of entering into contact and indeed conflict with the police, including negative experiences of policing, as young people start to socialize more with peers in public spaces free from parental care. In studies from North America, trust in the police amongst ethnic minority communities is found to be considerably lower than in white communities (Hurst & al., 2000; Flexon & al., 2009). Evidence of gender differences in attitudes towards the police is mixed, with some studies finding no differences (Hinds, 2007), while others find that either males (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999) or females (Flexon & al., 2009) hold more negative views.
With the objective of supplementing the lack of educational materials designed for school children on the intelligence services, the authors conceptualized and designed two animated videos. The objective of this article was to measure the impact of having viewed the video on the knowledge, the stereotypes, and the attitudes of school children in relation to the Spanish intelligence service. Therefore, the research question proposed in this article is: how will viewing the videos on CNI modify the knowledge, the stereotypes, and the attitudes of school children in relation to the intelligence service? The hypothesis is that viewing the animated videos will increase knowledge of CNI, reduce stereotypes, and favor more positive attitudes.
The investigation is designed as a quasi-experimental methodology, and the design involved only one group with which to evaluate the changes in the variables before and after having screened the corresponding video to each group. In section 2 of this paper, the process of designing the videos and the methodology of the study are set out. The results are summarised in section 3 and, in section 4, the results are discussed, and future lines of investigation that use the videos are proposed.
2.1. Preparation of the animated video
The initial objective was to prepare two animated videos for children between 8 and 11 years in age and for young adolescents between 12 and 16 years in age2 through which to explain the role of an intelligence service 'the Spanish CNI' in a democratic society3. The use of different formats was considered during the design of the project: comic, animated video, and story. However, directing the project at the generations that fit within what Palfrey & Gasser (2008) have baptized the generation of 'digital natives' led us to select the animated video rather than the comic or the story. In particular, the video format was justified insofar as i) it permits a combination of verbal, visual, textural, graphical, and musical mediums; ii) audio-visual channels are the principal on-line format that the target population consumes; and, iii) it can be reproduced on different channels (television, Internet) and devices (mobiles, computers, tablets, etc.), permitting individual screenings or as part of educational programs for citizenship.
The messages that were used to convey the information on the role of an intelligence service in a democratic State were known to the authors from previous research (Díaz-Fernández, 2005, 2016). The final list of messages included in the videos appears in Table 1. There were differences in the internal layout of the script, if those messages were: 1) Explicit (conveyed through explicit sentences in the text) or implicit (conveyed through images), or if they were; 2) Transversal (appearing throughout the video) or specific (appearing at a specific time in the video).
The scripts of the two videos were drafted on the basis of the final list of 14 messages. Due to the different degrees of maturity of both groups, some differences were established between both videos: 1) A simpler language with short sentences for the children; 2) Simplified messages for the children (for example, instead of the three forms of control, only judicial supervision was explained to them, as it was the one they knew best); and; 3) The use of simpler drawings in the video for the children with fewer details than in the video for the adolescents (Image 1 & 2). The images were complemented with emotive, affective, decorative, and musical elements, in accordance with the suggestions from Barker & al. (2003) and Meyer (2012), adopting the recommendations and the experiences of the use of didactic videos compiled in Cabero (2004). The music was specially composed for both videos.
2.2. Participants
A total of 1,092 children and adolescents (n=1,092) participated in the study (with a confidence interval of 95% and margin of error of ±3%). The participants were drawn from eight Spanish schools in the cities of Cadiz, Jerez de la Frontera, Mairena del Aljarafe, Gines, and Seville. 489 (44.2%) of the participants were boys, and 603 (55.8%) were girls. The age of the sample fluctuated between 8 and 16 years old, with an average of 12.14 years (SD=2.54). The educational levels of the school children corresponded to two educational stages: the group of 'Primary Education' (EP) was composed of 495 participants (45.3%), and the group of 'Secondary Education' (ESO), of 597 participants (54.7%). In addition, each sample is close to the average size of the samples habitually used in studies on knowledge and evaluation of the police such as those by Moretz (1980) with 137 participants, Hurst & al. (2000) with 852, Nihart & al. (2005) with 1,029, and Sindall & al. (2016) with 1,500. The schools were selected in accordance with two criteria to guarantee the representativeness of the socio-economic and demographic data: i) model of management and funding (public, private, and state-assisted); and, ii) (low, medium, and high) socio-economic level. The schools were therefore categorized as follows: private/high (1); state-assisted/high (2); state-assisted/medium (2); public/medium (2); and, public/low (2). All the schools were in large, medium, and small cities with populations of between 700,000 and 13,000 inhabitants.
2.3. Questionnaire
The questionnaire was structured into four sections corresponding to the four variables under analysis with a total of 30 items: 1) Sociodemographic data; 2) Knowledge of CNI; 3) Stereotypes on the work of intelligence service agents; 4) attitudes towards CNI. The following describes the content of each of the four sections.
In sociodemographic data, only the educational stage (EP or ESO) and the sex of the participant were recorded. This decision was agreed with the teaching centres, to avoid having to request the informed consent of the parents when gathering a minimum of personal information (Thomas & O'Kane, 1998).
Knowledge of the CNI was measured through six items with three possible responses: one correct, another wrong, and a third that affirmed no knowledge (Don't know/No opinion). These responses scored between 0 and two following the criteria of Mondak (1999), according to which the assumption of not knowing is an intermediate measurement between right and wrong knowledge. Three levels were therefore defined: 0=wrong knowledge; 1=don't know; and 2=right knowledge. This measurement obtained acceptable scores for internal consistency (a=.95).
The stereotypes on the work of the intelligence agents were measured with 16 items divided into: 1) Stereotypes associated with the influence of the communications media (4 items) (a=.88); 2) Stereotypes associated with police work (4 items) (a=.96); 3) Stereotypes associated with military work (4 items) (a=.50); and, iv) stereotypes associated with the work of private detectives (4 items) (a=.93). As may be seen, the stereotypes associated with military work was the only block with no reliable internal consistency (a=.70). An analysis of the correlations matrix identified one of the items as related in a negative manner with the other items of the construct ('work together in a group'), so this item was removed from the final analysis, thereby obtaining greater internal consistency and reliability (a=.81). Each item was positively expressed (for example, 'spies are secret') and the participants had to show their degree of agreement or disagreement with the affirmation on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where 1 was 'completely disagree', and 5 was 'completely agree', and where point 3 marked the intermediate point, 'neither agree nor disagree'. For the students of EP, emoticons were shown alongside the scale that expressed each of the grades, so that they would better understand the test responses.
The attitudes towards CNI were measured through six items on a 5-point Likert-type scale, where one was 'completely disagree' and 5 'completely agree', and where point 3 marked the intermediate point, 'neither agree nor disagree'. Items 2, 3 and six were formulated in positive terms when describing the CNI, where one was considered as a completely negative attitude towards the CNI and five as a completely positive attitude towards CNI. During the preparation of the database, the scores for items 1, 4 and five that were formulated in negative terms, were inverted (1=5; 2=4; 4=2; 5=1) before the analysis was completed. In this way, high scores in the sum of items indicated a favourable attitude towards the CNI. This measurement system yielded acceptable scores for internal consistency reliability (a=.97).
2.4. Procedure
The video was edited with the help of a communications company between April and October 2016. The first data-collection session, the video screening, and the second data-collection session with the students took place during October. The sample of participants was selected from among the schoolchildren at each centre by the Direction of the centre. An informed consent form was provided to the schools, although none of them considered its use necessary. Data collection was organized in two sessions with each one of the classes. During the first session, the participants were invited to fill in the questionnaire as a self-administered exercise. The researcher and the class tutors were at all times present to respond to the doubts of the participants and to supervise the collection of data so that it was done in the way that had been agreed with the centre. In the second session, the participants were shown the animated video corresponding to their educational stage (EP or ESO). Once the video had ended, the students were once again administered the same questionnaire as in the first session.
The results obtained after the first administration of the questionnaire are shown in Table 2. As may be seen, the 'average' level of knowledge of the participants was low, with 95.9% of participants giving responses between 0 'wrong knowledge' and 1 'no knowledge'. It was, in addition, observed that both the standard deviation and the variance were small. These data allowed us to conclude that both the EP and the ESO students held little or no knowledge of the CNI and its functions.
The second variable, 'stereotypes' received a higher score than the neutral value of three (3='neither agree nor disagree'). A priori, this result might indicate that the participants were so unaware of the matter that they were unable to identify each of the stereotypes included in the questionnaire. However, the analysis by type of stereotype 'associated with the influence of the communications media, police work, military work, and the work of private detectives' yielded different results. In Table 3 it may be seen that the stereotypes associated with the communications media obtained the highest scores. The most representative features that the participants employed to refer to the work of a spy were, in the first and second place, 'spies follow people who don't know they are being followed' (100% scored it with a 5, 'completely agree') and 'they infiltrate dangerous places' (70.3% scored it with a 5, 'completely agree'). As with the variable 'knowledge', the standard deviation and the variance were small, from which it may be understood that the scores for the stereotypes were very similar.
Finally, with regard to the variable 'attitudes', it may be seen that the participants had in their majority negative attitudes towards CNI (Mean=2.04; Median=1.84; Mode=1.83) to a very similar extent. Specifically, the items for which the lowest scores were obtained, in first and second place, were 'they are undercover, and I don't know whether they are spying on me' and 'I don't trust them to work for the Spanish people'. These scores provide evidence that the participants perceive the CNI agents as 'unknown', 'undercover', and as 'dangerous' agents who cannot be controlled. No significant differences were observed for the three variables according to the educational stage or the sex of the participants.
3.1. Effects of video screenings
When analysing the differences between the scores obtained for the variables before and after the video screenings, it was concluded that those scores differed significantly with respect to all the items under analysis (p<0.001 and r>0.8 for all the t-tests). Under the variable 'knowledge' (t='151.850; p<0.001; r=0.97), the screening of the video increased knowledge of the work, the organization, and the function of the CNI in a democratic State in the total sample of participants (Meanbefore=.515; Meanafter=1.93). The effect size of the video screening for this variable (r2=0.95) allows us to affirm that 95% of the observed increase in the scores for 'knowledge' of participants was due to the screening of the videos.
Statistically significant differences were also obtained for the variable 'stereotypes' before and after the video screening (t =193.849; p<0.001; r=97). In total, the scores for 'stereotypes' fell for all participants from 3.426 (Meanbefore=3.426) to 1.526 (Meanafter= 1.526).
Finally, the participants presented more favourable scores towards the CNI under the variable 'attitudes' after the video screening corresponding to their age group (t='177.682; p<0.001; r=0.98), with an effect size for the video screenings of r2=0.966, which allows us to affirm that 96.6% of the increase in the positive attitudes towards the CNI was due to the participants having watched the videos. In Tables 4 and 5, the average scores for 'knowledge', 'stereotypes' and 'attitudes' before and after the video screening are shown by educational stage and sex.
These data allow us to conclude that the screenings of the informative animated videos increased knowledge of the intelligence services, reduced stereotypes associated with the work of the agents, and increased positive attitudes towards the work of the CNI. Hence, our study has confirmed the starting hypothesis of the authors. The few studies completed with the police show a change before and after the children were exposed to the input, although not as significant, nor exclusively attributable to one variable, because, for example, in the studies with resident police officers, it was not possible to measure whether the impact was due to the presence of a police officer or because of the personality of the specific police officer present at the educational centre (Hopkins & al. 1992). However, the impact following the screening of the videos was higher than the impact reported in studies on the police force. Unlike the studies with the police, it was confirmed that the lack of direct contact with the intelligence service meant that the school children had weaker and more erroneous knowledge of their functions. However, despite that lack of knowledge, familiarity with the work 'spy' meant that they assumed the majority of stereotypes that are conveyed through the communications media in its broadest sense.
Moreover, there is a great similarity between the results for students of both sexes with the results in Hinds (2007) when, in other studies, it appeared that either one or the other sex was the most critical (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999; Flexon & al., 2009). The population of Spanish school children is therefore of greater similarity than those of other countries. Immigration is highly concentrated in some cities, and within those, in specific neighborhoods and colleges, so much so that the impact of that variable was not measured. Nevertheless, the schools that were selected showed a very wide socioeconomic composition, encompassing conflictive neighborhoods and elite centres of a religious nature, which strengthens the similarity of the views that were gathered following the screening of the video. Neither was an abrupt cut-off point observed between age groups (children and young adolescents), as was detected by Sindall & al. (2016).
The importance of having pedagogic materials for parents and educators has been demonstrated, in order to widen knowledge of the security institutions among children and young people across the world where the attacks that strike at the heart of our cities appear to be increasingly recurrent. Moreover, an understanding of the knowledge that school children hold of these 'secret' agencies would be relevant information with which to develop information campaigns directed at improving their role in a democratic State. This is a line of work that the authors wish to follow in a subsequent phase, in collaboration with professionals to develop didactic units that can be employed individually or jointly with other materials and campaigns.
The videos will be used in future investigations to see whether they reduce the fear of terrorism and perceptions of insecurity among school children, considering variables such as hours of exposure to the news and use of social media. These variables have been proposed in the studies of Smith & Wilson (2002), which established that watching television was a predictor of sensations of fear, and that of Comer & al. (2008), which established that time viewing the television and Internet were variables associated with anxiety, perceptions of fear, and personal vulnerability. Our hypothesis for future research is that the improved knowledge provided by the videos would help to soothe the anxiety and the stress expressed by young people in reaction to the news of terrorist attacks when the story of the 'baddies' confronts the story of the 'goodies' within a State that is there to protect them and yet, as has been confirmed, remained imperceptible.
Notes
1 Although the authors prefer the term 'agent', for the purposes of clarity, the more common term of 'spy' was used with young children.
2 The Spanish Educational System is organized in its obligatory phase in Primary Education (Educación Primaria) (EP), between 6 and 12 years in age and Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria) (ESO) from 12 to 16 years in age.
3 The videos are available from the following link http://bit.ly/2BMmvTF to the University of Cadiz.
Funding Agency
This research has been funded through the collaborative agreement existing between the University of Cadiz and the CNI. This publication has been partially granted by INDESS (Research University Institute for Sustainable Social Development) at the University of Cadiz, Spain.
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Dar a conocer a los escolares las organizaciones de seguridad es un medio para reducir la inseguridad generada por la difusión de los atentados terroristas en los medios de comunicación y redes sociales. Mientras que hay una mayor tradición en proyectos para educar a los escolares sobre la policía y los militares, no se han encontrado proyectos análogos sobre los servicios de inteligencia. Con el objetivo de suplir esta carencia, los autores diseñaron y produjeron dos vídeos animados educativos destinados a escolares españoles sobre el servicio de inteligencia español, el Centro Nacional de Inteligencia (CNI). Este artículo mide cuál es el impacto de los vídeos en el conocimiento, los estereotipos y las actitudes de los escolares hacia el CNI. Para ello, se aplicaron dos cuestionarios a 1.092 escolares de 8 a 16 años, antes y después de la visualización de los vídeos. Los resultados previos a la visualización mostraron un conocimiento nulo, alto grado de estereotipos y actitudes moderadamente negativas hacia los servicios de inteligencia. Se comprobaron las respuestas mediante pruebas T para muestras relacionadas, a partir de las cuales se obtuvo que los vídeos modificaban el conocimiento, los estereotipos y las actitudes hacia el CNI. Específicamente, tras la visualización mejoró el conocimiento de los escolares, disminuyó el grado de estereotipos y aumentaron las actitudes positivas.
Todos aquellos niños, niñas y adolescentes con quienes hablemos habrán nacido tras los atentados de 2001 contra los Estados Unidos. Esto supone que desde que tienen uso de razón, el terrorismo ataca sus ciudades. Si en la década de los años treinta del pasado siglo, los menores temían a las bestias salvajes y a los truenos, en la actualidad, tras haber temido a una guerra nuclear, lo que les aterra son los tsunamis, los huracanes y los atentados terroristas (Garbarino, Governale, Henry, & Nesi, 2015). En este caso, el docente debe ser capaz de explicar el significado de esta amenaza y, en este caso, la existencia de una organización dentro del Estado cuya función es combatirla y, como establece Jaramillo (2005), elegir entre los diferentes instrumentos existentes para sus necesidades educacionales.
Al importante papel que se conocía de la información verbal y del aprendizaje vicario en la adquisición del miedo y en la ansiedad en los jóvenes (Field & Lawson, 2003; Field & Schorah, 2007) se le ha unido la televisión en el desarrollo de la percepción de vulnerabilidad personal de los niños (Romer, Jamieson, & Aday, 2003). Aunque los niños y las niñas más pequeños están en general menos expuestos y afectados por las noticias que los de mayor edad y los adultos, noticias catastróficas como los atentados del Nueva York, Madrid, Londres, París o Barcelona pueden tener un intenso impacto en todas las edades. Un estudio realizado entre los escolares de la ciudad de Nueva York (Hoven & al., 2002) afloró un amplio abanico de problemas de salud mental, que incluían agorafobia (15%), ansiedad por la separación (12%) y desorden por estrés postraumático (11%) como resultas de los atentados. Los escolares que reportaron una mayor exposición a las noticias mostraron mayores ratios de Trastorno de Estrés Postraumático (TEPT) que aquellos menores con menor exposición a la televisión. El impacto del terrorismo en los niños y las niñas a través de su exposición a los medios de comunicación y las redes sociales ha sido constatado por los trece estudios que al respecto recopilan Pfefferbaum, Phebe y Rose (2018).
Los menores aprenden mediante la observación y la imitación. El papel, por esta razón, de los intermediarios como los progenitores o la escuela respecto a qué mensaje y cómo les llega es fundamental (Comer & Kendall, 2007; Punch, 2002). Por tanto, padres y madres no hacen más que reproducir los estereotipos asociados a las películas de James Bond y las novelas de John Le Carré a los cuales los menores ya están sujetos a través de los medios y, la escuela, es un terreno donde los espías1 no existen (Quintelier, 2015). Pero mientras los vacíos de información son fáciles de definir, es más complejo afrontar los estereotipos; esto es, ese conjunto de creencias -positivas o negativas- que comparten un mismo grupo de personas, esquemas cognitivos que influyen en cómo una persona procesa la información social que recibe (McGarty, Yzertbyt, & Spears, 2002). Esta visión encaja con el planteamiento de van-Deth y otros (2011), cuyo trabajo de campo estaba dirigido a obtener información que distinguía entre «Political Awareness» (conocer las instituciones) y «Functional Knowledge» (qué hacen estas) y que se empleará en esta investigación.
El objetivo central del sistema educativo es transmitir desde edades tempranas unos valores comunes como los derechos humanos y las libertades que caracterizan a las sociedades democráticas (Starkey, 2012). Como conocemos por los estudios de Gardner (1991) sobre la percepción de los menores sobre la policía, para ellos el mundo de la seguridad se representa como una lucha entre los buenos y los malos. Si seguimos a DiSessa (1982: 465) que sostenía que las opiniones adecuadas sobre la policía necesitaban ser establecidas durante los primeros años de la infancia, esto nos lleva a tener que transmitir a los nuevos ciudadanos la existencia de instituciones en la democracia cuyo trabajo es evitar estos atentados y buscar a los culpables: los servicios de inteligencia.
La continua presencia de las agencias secretas en las noticias de televisión luchando contra el terrorismo en el corazón de la ciudad, alertas terroristas, simulacros de evacuación, vigilancias telefónicas… no hacen nada para mejorar la situación. Los estudios de Klein y otros (2009), DeVoe y otros (2011) y Carpenter y otros (2012), sobre la reacción de los menores tras atentados terroristas, muestran cómo aquellos que fueron informados por sus cuidadores mostraron una menor ansiedad. Por tanto, si queremos que los menores participen de forma democrática y sin miedo es importante trabajar con ellos en estas fases iniciales de su vida ya que, como ha demostrado Sapiro (2004), este período de su vida es esencial para el desarrollo de las orientaciones ciudadanas y su compromiso.
Las diferencias entre los ciudadanos mejor y peor informados pueden ser dramáticas (Delli-Carpini & Keeter, 1996: 272), por tanto, transmitir a los ciudadanos más jóvenes una mejor y más completa imagen del servicio de inteligencia, cuando aún se encuentran conformando sus opiniones sobre el concepto de democracia y lo que este régimen político implica, tendrá dos consecuencias positivas. Por un lado, redundará en una mayor legitimidad y confianza de los ciudadanos y, por otro, supondrá un incremento de su capacidad de decisión y opinión acerca de las acciones llevadas a cabo por los servicios de inteligencia (Díez-Nicolás, 2012: 162). Nuestro proyecto bebe de esta lógica; esto es, contribuir a solventar los vacíos de información y los estereotipos existentes sobre los servicios de inteligencia mediante el desarrollo y testeo de un material pedagógico de manera que el impacto de los acontecimientos históricos -que es mayor cuando ocurren en las edades tempranas (Schumann & Scott, 1989)- pueda ser mitigado.
Desde los años sesenta se realizan estudios sobre cuál es la percepción que los niños y niñas tienen de la policía. Sin embargo, los autores desconocen estudios que traten el mismo tema respecto a los espías. La lógica detrás de esta falta de estudios está, en nuestra opinión, en que, a diferencia de la policía –y parcialmente también de los militares– los menores y adolescentes no se relacionan con los espías. Entre otras razones, no los ven, no interactúan con ellos, no hay familiares cercanos que se identifiquen como tal, no los identifican con símbolos y no hay instalaciones visibles y visitables para ellos. Por tanto, si bien podemos beber de la metodología de aquellos estudios, es inviable realizar comparaciones con el cómo los escolares perciben las diferentes instituciones de seguridad en un Estado democrático. No obstante de estas experiencias sí podemos extraer algunas reflexiones de interés para nuestro estudio.
Respecto a la metodología, sí encontramos estudios que miden el conocimiento y/u opinión en dos momentos entre los cuales se introduce algún estímulo a los escolares como es nuestra aportación. Por ejemplo, tras una actividad concreta (Hopkins, Hewstone, & Hantzi, 1992) o tras interactuar con policías en una exhibición policial en el patio de recreo (Derbyshire, 1968). También encontramos estudios con escuelas donde hay policías permanentes en tareas de prevención y mediación, y otras sin su presencia (Hopkins & al., 1992) o bien, estudios realizados tras mostrarles a los escolares diferentes vídeos con fragmentos de películas y series de televisión policiales (Low & Durkin, 2001).
Respecto a algunas conclusiones obtenidas de estos estudios, no todas pueden considerarse generalizables. Para algunos autores, los menores no solo desconfían de la policía sino que desconocen o malinterpretan el papel de la policía en la sociedad (Brown & Benedict 2002; Hurst & Frank, 2000). La visión de los jóvenes es peor en muchos estudios que la que muestran niños y niñas (Loader, 1996; McAra & McVie, 2010) debido a que los jóvenes realizan un mayor uso del espacio público y se incrementa su relación y conflicto con la policía, incluyendo experiencias negativas con la policía ya que los jóvenes comienzan a socializar más con sus semejantes en espacios públicos fuera del control parental. En diversos estudios realizados en los Estados Unidos, se ha comprobado que la confianza en la policía entre las minorías étnicas es considerablemente más baja que en comunidades blancas (Hurst & al., 2000; Flexon & al., 2009). Hay datos contradictorios respecto a la actitud hacia la policía por sexo, con algunos estudios que no han encontrado diferencias entre ambos (Hinds, 2007), mientras otros han encontrado que bien los hombres (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999) bien las mujeres (Flexon & al., 2009) tienen visiones más negativas.
Con el objetivo de suplir la carencia de materiales educativos destinados a escolares sobre los servicios de inteligencia, los autores conceptualizaron y diseñaron dos vídeos animados. El objetivo de este artículo es medir el impacto de la visualización de los vídeos en el conocimiento, los estereotipos y las actitudes de los escolares hacia el servicio de inteligencia español. Por tanto, la pregunta de investigación de este artículo es: ¿cómo modifica la visualización de los vídeos sobre el CNI el conocimiento, los estereotipos y las actitudes de los escolares hacia los servicios de inteligencia? La hipótesis es que la visualización de los vídeos animados aumenta el conocimiento hacia el CNI, reduce los estereotipos y favorece actitudes más positivas.
La investigación está diseñada según una metodología cuasi experimental y el diseño implica a solo un grupo con el que evaluar el cambio en las variables antes y después de haber visualizado el vídeo que correspondía a cada grupo. Este artículo expone en la sección 2ª el proceso de diseño de los vídeos y la metodología del estudio. En la 3ª se resumen los resultados obtenidos y, en la 4ª se discuten los resultados y se proponen futuras líneas de investigación que utilicen los vídeos.
2.1. Creación del vídeo animado
El objetivo de esta primera parte era elaborar dos vídeos animados para niños de 8 a 11 años y adolescentes de 12 a 16 años2 a través de los cuales explicarles el papel que tiene un servicio de inteligencia –en concreto el CNI español– en una sociedad democrática3. Se consideraron diferentes formatos para su diseño: cómic, vídeo animado y cuento. Sin embargo, dirigir el proyecto a generaciones que encajan dentro de lo que Palfrey y Gasser (2008) bautizaron como «nativos digitales» nos llevó a optar por el vídeo frente al cómic y al cuento. En concreto, el formato vídeo se justificaba en que: 1) Permite combinar mensaje verbal, visual, textual, gráfico y musical, logrando así una mayor capacidad de transmisión del mensaje final; 2) La población a la que se dirige -niños y adolescentes- está socializada principalmente a través de canales audiovisuales, por lo que estarán más receptivos ante este tipo de material; 3) Puede ser reproducido a través de diferentes canales de difusión (televisión, Internet) y dispositivos (móviles, ordenadores, tabletas, etc.) permitiendo su uso aislado o dentro de los programas de educación para la ciudadanía.
Por investigaciones previas de los autores se conocía los mensajes que estos vídeos debían incluir para trasmitir cuál es la función de un servicio de inteligencia en un Estado democrático (Díaz-Fernández, 2005, 2016). La relación final de mensajes que se incluyen en los vídeos se recoge en la Tabla 1. Para organizar internamente el guion se diferenció si estos mensajes eran: explícitos (se transmitirían con frases explícitas en la locución) o implícitos (se transmitirían mediante imágenes), o si bien eran transversales (aparecerían a lo largo de todo el vídeo) o específicos (aparecerían en un momento concreto del vídeo).
Con la lista final de 14 mensajes, se escribieron los guiones de los dos vídeos. Motivado por el diferente grado de madurez de ambos grupos, se establecieron algunas diferencias entre ambos vídeos; en concreto, a diferencia del de los adolescentes, los vídeos para los niños y niñas emplearían: 1) Un lenguaje más sencillo con frases cortas; 2) Mensajes simplificados para los niños (por ejemplo, en lugar de los tres controles, solo se les explica el judicial al ser el más conocido por ellos); 3) Dibujos más simples y con menores detalles (Imagen 1 & 2). Las imágenes fueron complementadas con elementos emotivos, afectivos, estéticos y musicales como sugerían Barker y otros (2003) y Meyer (2012), adoptando las recomendaciones y experiencias del uso del vídeo didáctico que recoge Cabero (2004). La música para ambos vídeos fue compuesta especialmente para ellos.
2.2. Participantes
Un total de 1.092 niños y adolescentes (n=1.092) participaron en el estudio (para un intervalo de confianza del 95% y margen de error del ±3%). Los participantes se obtuvieron de ocho centros escolares españoles de las ciudades de Cádiz, Jerez de la Frontera, Mairena del Aljarafe, Gines y Sevilla. 489 (44,2%) de ellos eran hombres y 603 (55,8%) mujeres. La edad de la muestra osciló entre 8 y 16 años, con una media de 12,14 años (SD=2.54). El nivel educativo de los participantes generó dos grupos: el grupo de «Educación Primaria» (EP) estuvo compuesto por 495 participantes (45,3%), y el grupo de «Educación Secundaria Obligatoria» (ESO) por 597 participantes (54,7%). Además, esta muestra está en la media de la habitual empleada en estudios sobre conocimiento y valoración de la policía tales como Moretz (1980) con 137 participantes, Hurst (2000) con 852, Nihart, Lersch, Sellers y Mieczkowski (2005) con 1.029 o Sindall y otros (2016) con 1.500. Para garantizar la representatividad socio-económica y demográfica se seleccionaron los colegios según dos criterios: 1) Modelo de gestión y financiación (público, privado o concertado; 2) Composición socio-económica (baja, media o alta). La composición de los colegios fue: privado-alto (1), concertado-alto (2), concertado-medio (2), público-medio (2) y público-bajo (2) correspondiendo a ciudades grandes, medianas y pequeñas con poblaciones entre los 700.000 y los 13.000 habitantes.
2.3. Cuestionario
El cuestionario se estructuró en cuatro apartados, correspondiente a las cuatro variables analizadas con un total de 30 ítems: 1) Datos sociodemográficos; 2) Conocimiento sobre CNI; 3) Estereotipos sobre el trabajo de los agentes de inteligencia; 4) Actitudes hacia el CNI. A continuación se describe el contenido de cada uno de los cuatro apartados.
En datos sociodemográficos, se recopilaron únicamente el curso académico (EP o ESO) y el sexo del participante. Esta decisión fue acordada con los centros escolares para evitar tener que solicitar el consentimiento informado a los padres al recabarse una mínima información personal (Thomas & O’Kane, 1998).
El conocimiento sobre el CNI fue medido mediante seis ítems con tres respuestas posibles: una correcta, una errónea, y una que afirmaba desconocimiento («No lo sé»). Las respuestas se puntuaron de 0 a 2 según el criterio de Mondak (1999) quien entendía que la asunción de no conocer era la medida intermedia entre el conocimiento y la idea equivocada. Por tanto, se definieron tres niveles: 0=conocimiento erróneo; 1=desconocimiento; y 2=conocimiento. Esta medida obtuvo pruebas suficientes de fiabilidad de consistencia interna (a=.95).
Los estereotipos sobre el trabajo de los agentes de inteligencia se midieron con 16 ítems divididos en cuatro apartados: 1) Estereotipos asociados a la influencia de los medios de comunicación (4 ítems) (a=.88); 2) Estereotipos asociados al trabajo policial (4 ítems) (a=.96); 3) Estereotipos asociados al trabajo militar (4 ítems) (a=.50); 4) Estereotipos asociados al trabajo de detectives privados (4 ítems) (a=.93). Como se observa, el único bloque que no obtuvo una consistencia interna fiable (a=.70) fue el de estereotipos asociados al trabajo militar. Analizando la matriz de correlaciones se identificó que uno de los ítems se relacionaba de manera negativa con los restantes ítems del constructo («trabajan en grupo»), por lo que este ítem fue descartado del análisis final, obteniendo una mayor fiabilidad en la consistencia interna (a=.81). Cada ítem se formuló en positivo (por ejemplo, «los espías son secretos») y los participantes debían mostrar su grado de acuerdo o desacuerdo con la afirmación según una escala Likert-5, siendo 1 «totalmente en desacuerdo» y 5 «totalmente de acuerdo», y marcando como punto intermedio el 3, «ni de acuerdo ni en desacuerdo». Para los alumnos de EP se acompañó dicha escala con emoticonos que expresaban cada uno de los grados a fin de que entendieran mejor la prueba.
Las actitudes hacia el CNI se midieron mediante seis ítems con escala Likert-5, siendo 1 «totalmente en desacuerdo» y 5 «totalmente de acuerdo», y marcando como punto intermedio el 3, «ni de acuerdo ni en desacuerdo». Los ítems 2, 3 y 6 se formularon de forma positiva hacia el CNI, considerándose el 1 como actitud completamente negativa hacia el CNI y el 5 como actitud completamente positiva hacia el CNI; mientras que los ítems 1, 4 y 5 se formularon de forma negativa, considerándose el 1 como actitud completamente positiva hacia el CNI y el 5 como actitud completamente negativa hacia el CNI. Durante la elaboración de la base de datos, las puntuaciones de los ítems 1, 4 y 5 formulados de forma negativa se invirtieron antes de realizar el análisis (1=5; 2=4; 4=2; 5=1). De este modo, las altas puntuaciones en la suma de los ítems indicaban una actitud favorable hacia el CNI. Esta medida obtuvo pruebas suficientes de fiabilidad de consistencia interna (a=.97).
2.4. Procedimiento
La elaboración del vídeo con la ayuda de una empresa de comunicación se realizó entre abril y octubre de 2016. La primera toma de datos, visualización del vídeo y segunda toma de datos de los estudiantes se produjo durante el mes de octubre. La muestra de participantes se seleccionó de entre todos los cursos académicos de cada centro a elección de la Dirección del mismo. Se facilitó a los centros un modelo de consentimiento informado, si bien ninguno de ellos consideró necesaria su utilización. La recogida de datos se organizó en dos momentos o sesiones con cada una de las clases. Durante la primera sesión se solicitó a los participantes que cumplimentaran el cuestionario de forma auto-administrada. En todo momento estuvo presente el investigador y los tutores de la clase para responder a las dudas de los participantes y supervisar que la recogida de datos se realizaba de la forma convenida con el centro. En la segunda sesión, se mostró a los participantes el vídeo animado correspondiente a su curso académico (EP o ESO). Una vez finalizado el vídeo, se les administró de nuevo el mismo cuestionario de la primera sesión.
En la Tabla 2 se muestran los resultados obtenidos tras la primera implementación del cuestionario. Como se observa, el nivel de «conocimiento» medio de los participantes es bajo, encontrándose el 95.9% de las respuestas entre el 0 –conocimiento erróneo– y el 1 –desconocimiento–. Tanto la desviación típica como la varianza son pequeñas. Este dato permite concluir que el desconocimiento acerca de las funciones del CNI es generalizado entre los estudiantes de EP y ESO.
En la segunda variable, «estereotipos», se obtiene una puntuación superior al valor neutro (3=«ni de acuerdo ni en desacuerdo»). A priori, este podría indicar que los participantes desconocen tanto el fenómeno que no sabrían localizar cada uno de los estereotipos contemplados en el cuestionario. Sin embargo, el análisis por tipo de estereotipos –asociados a la influencia de los medios de comunicación, al trabajo policial, al trabajo militar, y al trabajo de detectives privados– arroja resultados distintos. En la Tabla 3 se observa que los estereotipos asociados a los medios de comunicación son los que han obtenido puntuaciones más altas. Los rasgos más representativos que los participantes emplearon para referirse al trabajo de un espía fueron, en primer y segundo lugar, «siguen a personas sin que estas lo sepan» (el 100% lo puntuó con un 5, «totalmente de acuerdo») y «se infiltran en sitios peligrosos» (el 70,3% lo puntuó con un 5, «totalmente de acuerdo»). Al igual que en la variable «conocimiento», la desviación típica y la varianza son pequeñas, lo que se interpreta como que las puntuaciones de los estereotipos obtenidas son homogéneas.
Por último, en cuanto a la variable «actitudes», se obtiene que los participantes tienen una actitud mayoritariamente negativa hacia el CNI (Media=2.04; Mediana= 1.84; Moda=1.83) de forma homogénea. Específicamente, los ítems en los que se han obtenido puntuaciones más bajas son, en primer y segundo lugar, «están ocultos y no sé si me espían a mí» y «no confío en que trabajen para los españoles». Ello evidencia que los participantes perciben a los agentes del CNI como unos sujetos «desconocidos», «ocultos» y «peligrosos» a los que no pueden controlan. No se observan diferencias significativas en las tres variables según el curso académico o el sexo de los participantes.
3.1. Efectos de la visualización de los vídeos
Al analizar las diferencias entre las puntuaciones obtenidas en las variables antes y después de la visualización de los vídeos se concluye que estas puntuaciones difieren significativamente con respecto a todos los ítems analizados (p<0.001 y r>0.8 para todas las pruebas t). En la variable «conocimiento» (t=–151.850; p<0.001; r=0.97) se ha obtenido que la exposición al vídeo aumenta el conocimiento de la muestra total de participantes acerca del trabajo, organización y función del CNI dentro de un Estado democrático (Mediaantes=.515; Mediadespués= 1.93). El tamaño del efecto de la visualización del vídeo en esta variable (r2=0.95) permite afirmar que el 95% del incremento observado en las puntuaciones de «conocimiento» de los participantes se debe a la visualización de los vídeos.
En la variable «estereotipos» también se han obtenido diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los momentos anterior y posterior a la visualización de los vídeos (t=193.849; p<0.001; r=97). En total, las puntuaciones en estereotipos disminuyó en los participantes de 3.426 (Mediaantes=3.426) a 1.526 (Mediadespués=1.526).
Por último, en la variable «actitudes» se obtiene que los participantes presentan puntuaciones más favorables hacia el CNI tras la visualización del vídeo correspondiente a su grupo de edad (t=-177.682; p<0.001; r=0.98), con un tamaño del efecto de la visualización de los vídeos r2=0.966, lo que permite afirmar que el 96,6% del aumento en las actitudes positivas hacia el CNI se debe a que los participantes visualizaron los vídeos. En las Tablas 4 y 5 se muestran las puntuaciones medias en «conocimiento», «estereotipos» y «actitudes» antes y después de la visualización de los vídeos según curso y sexo.
Estos datos permiten concluir que la visualización de los vídeos informativos animados aumenta el conocimiento hacia el trabajo de los servicios de inteligencia, disminuye los estereotipos asociados al trabajo de los agentes y aumenta las actitudes positivas hacia la el trabajo del CNI. Por tanto, nuestro estudio también confirma la hipótesis de partida de los autores del menor conocimiento de estas agencias por parte de niños, niñas y jóvenes por su menor contacto con ellas y su nula visibilidad más allá de las películas. Los escasos estudios realizados con policías muestran un cambio antes y después de estar expuestos a un estímulo, si bien no tan significativo ni atribuible en exclusiva a una variable ya que, por ejemplo, en los estudios con policías residentes no podía medirse si el impacto era por la figura del policía o por la personalidad del policía concreto presente en el centro educativo (Hopkins & al., 1992). Sin embargo, el impacto tras la visualización de los vídeos ha sido superior al impacto que arrojaban los estudios sobre la policía. A diferencia de los estudios con la policía, se confirma que la falta de contacto directo con el servicio de inteligencia produce que los escolares tengan un conocimiento menor y más erróneo sobre sus funciones. Además, a pesar del desconocimiento, la familiaridad con la palabra ‘espía’ hace que asuman la mayoría de los estereotipos que tienen como origen los medios de comunicación en su concepción más amplia.
Por otra parte, el estudio muestra una gran homogeneidad entre los resultados de estudiantes de ambos sexos, como en Hinds (2007), cuando en otros estudios parecía que eran unos u otros los más críticos (Weitzer & Tuch, 1999; Flexon & al., 2009). La población escolar española es más homogénea que la de otros países. La inmigración está muy concentrada en algunas ciudades y, dentro de estas, en barrios y colegios concretos por lo que el impacto de esta variable no se ha medido. No obstante, los centros seleccionados muestran una composición socioeconómica muy amplia cubriendo desde barrios conflictivos hasta centros de elite de carácter religioso lo que fortalece la homogeneidad obtenida del impacto de la visualización del vídeo. Tampoco se observa un corte abrupto entre grupos de edades (menores y jóvenes) como sí detectó Sindall y otros (2016).
Se demuestra la importancia de disponer de materiales pedagógicos para los progenitores y educadores para poder incrementar el conocimiento de las instituciones de seguridad por parte de los escolares y jóvenes, sobre todo, en un mundo donde los ataques al corazón de las ciudades parecen ser cada vez más recurrentes. Por otra, comprender cuál es el conocimiento que tienen los escolares de estas «secretas» agencias será una información relevante para desarrollar campañas de información dirigidas a un mejor conocimiento sobre su papel en un Estado democrático. Esta es una línea de trabajo que los autores quieren abrir en una siguiente fase en colaboración con profesores para desarrollar unidades didácticas que puedan ser empleadas de forma individual o en conjunto con otros materiales o campañas
En futuras investigaciones se analizará si los vídeos disminuyen el miedo al terrorismo y la percepción de inseguridad entre los escolares, considerando variables como horas de exposición a las noticias y uso de las redes sociales, como han propuesto estudios como los de Smith y Wilson (2009) que establecía que el consumo de televisión era predictivo de la sensación de miedo y el de Comer y otros (2008) que establece la cantidad de televisión e Internet consumida como variables asociadas a la ansiedad, percepción del miedo y vulnerabilidad personal. Nuestra hipótesis para investigaciones futuras es que este mejor conocimiento proporcionado por lo vídeos permitirá reducir la ansiedad y el estrés que manifiestan los menores ante las noticias de atentados terroristas, al confrontar el relato de la existencia de los «baddies» con la existencia a su vez de «goodies» dentro del Estado cuya función es protegerles y que, como se ha comprobado, es inexistente para ellos.
Notas
1 Si bien los autores prefieren el término de «agente», a efectos de claridad, con los escolares se empleó el más habitual de «espía».
2 El Sistema Educativo Español se organiza en su fase obligatoria en Educación Primaria, en adelante EP y que va de los 6 a los 12 años y la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO) de los 12 a los 16 años.
3 Los vídeos están disponibles en el siguiente enlace http://bit.ly/2BMmvTF de la Universidad de Cádiz.
Apoyos
Esta investigación se ha financiado dentro del convenio de colaboración de la Universidad de Cádiz y el Centro Nacional de Inteligencia. Se ha recibido ayuda económica parcial del INDESS (Instituto Universitario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Social Sostenible), Universidad de Cádiz, España.
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Published on 30/06/18
Accepted on 30/06/18
Submitted on 30/06/18
Volume 26, Issue 2, 2018
DOI: 10.3916/C56-2018-08
Licence: CC BY-NC-SA license
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