Ethnic and traditional Iranian rice-based foods

Abstract

Background

Iranian national cuisine is very diverse and nutritious. A rice-based diet is commonly used by all people throughout the country. The current work aimed at documenting the ethnic and traditional rice-based foods prepared and consumed in Iran.

Methods

The data were collected by individually interviewing people from 15 cities in five districts of Iran (north, south, west, east, and central parts), as well as searching literature and scientific sources.

Results

A list of 100 ethnic and traditional rice-based foods of Iranian cuisine is presented in three categories: main meals, soups/pottages, and sweets/desserts.

Conclusion

The main ingredient of traditional and ethnic Iranian foods is rice. Iranian people develop many ways to create and consume rice-based foods.

Keywords

ethnic food ; Iran ; rice

1. Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the second most important staple food crop in the word after wheat [1]  and [2] . It is a main source of carbohydrate and provides proteins, fibers, vitamins, and minerals [3] . Generally, rice provides the bulk of daily calories for more than half the people throughout the world [1]  and [4] . Rice production by the top 50 countries has been increased from 586 million metric tons (MMT) to about 738 MMT from 2003 to 2013 [5] . The largest producer of rice in the world is China with a production of about 205 MMT [5] . The other principal rice producers are Asian countries such as India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, and the Philippines [5]  and [6] .

Iran is also a producer of rice in Asia with a production of 2.4 MMT [5] . The food consumption pattern of people in Iran shows that Iranians consume an average of 100 g of rice per day [7] . Rice is the second most popular and favorite food in Iran after bread. The most famous and common rice-based food products in Iran are chelow kebab , chelow gheimeh , ghormeh sabzi , and joojeh kebab . Each of these foods can be served as a main rice dish with side dishes. Rice can be also used in a vast range of Iranian rice-based food products such as soups, stews, sweets, and desserts [6] . Furthermore, it can be utilized as an ingredient of different kinds of ethnic and traditional foods in Iran.

Today, there is an increased interest in ethnic food throughout the world. By definition, ethnic food can be considered as a countrys cuisine that is accepted by people outside of that country. For example, Iranian food is introduced as ethnic food outside of Iran [8] . The world is focusing more on traditional and ethnic food because many people from different countries tend to eat not only for survival, but also for pleasure [8]  and [9] .

Adding ethnic foods to the consumption pattern of people around the word is necessary for a pleasant workplace, healthy life, as well as having a favorite leisure time activity [9] . In recent years, many researchers have worked on traditional and ethnic foods [10] , [11] , [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18]  and [19] . They have put time and effort into scientific research and the introduction of ethnic foods to the global community [8] .

For example, Kwon and Tamang [20] have defined religious foods and briefly introduced some of them. Kwon et al [21] have also considered old Korean documents for historical reviewing of some Korean traditional fermented foods. Shin and Jeong [22] have investigated Korean traditional fermented soybean products. They also analyzed the fermentation process used in the preparation of different types of sauces in Korea. The ayurvedic and traditional foods of Indian origin were introduced and classified by Sarkar et al [23] . The authors described the preparation method of these traditional foods. Some nonfermented ethnic foods of India were also introduced by Tamang and Thapa [24] . Ma [25] expressed the relationship between food, culture, and eating behavior in Chinese society.

Simatenda et al [26] have reviewed the preparation methods of traditional fermented foods in Swaziland. Khojimatov et al [27] have introduced some wild growing plants of Uzbekistan, which are used in the common local cuisine. Ray et al [28] have provided an explorative overview of traditional rice-based fermented beverages and foods in Indian cuisine.

Generally, Iranian ethnic foods are divided in two groups: wheat-based and rice-based foods. A wheat-based food in Iranian culture is a foodstuff that is served accompanying wheat bread, as well as foods made by wheat or wheat flour. Similarly, a rice-based food contains rice as the main ingredient. Iranian people usually eat a rice-based food once or twice a day, although their main rice meal is consumed at noon. In many Iranian families, a meal is not considered a food unless a rice-based dish is included, even if plenty of other foods are prepared for the meal. To the best of the authors knowledge, there is not enough research on the ethnic and traditional foods of Iran. Due to the great diversity of rice-based foods and its popularity, further studies on these types of foods are required. The objective of this study is to introduce and document some of the ethnic and traditional rice-based foods consumed in Iran.

2. Materials and methods

In the current study, the data were collected randomly from people from 15 cities in five districts of Iran: North (Rasht, Sari, Babol), South (Bandarabbas, Shiraz, Bushehr), West (Tabriz, Urmia, Ahvaz), East (Mashhad, Quchan, Nishabur), and the Central Iran (Tehran, Karaj, Esfahan).

The data gathering process was carried out by a face-to-face questionnaire-based survey. The required information was obtained by interviewing housewives and domestic people. Furthermore, some parts of information were provided from literature and scientific publications as well as by researching historical documents [24]  and [27] .

3. Results

3.1. Rice cultivars

Iran is situated in west Asia and borders the Persian Gulf, Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Oman. It is subdivided into 31 provinces. Mazandaran, Guilan, Golestan, Khuzestan, and Fars provinces are the most important producers of rice in Iran. These provinces differ in terms of temperature, precipitation rate, relative humidity, and sunshine hours. Also, the soil properties in these regions are not the same. As a result, there are many diverse varieties of cultivated rice in different provinces. The most widely-grown rice varieties in Iran are listed in Table 1 .

Table 1. The most widely-grown varieties of rice in Iran.

No.	Province	Planted area (ha)	Cultivars
1	Mazandaran	238,000	Khazar, Tarom-Mahalli, Fajr, Sahel, Amol3, Bahar1
2	Guilan	238,000	Sadri, Hashemi, Ali-Kazemi, Hasani, Sepidrud, Kadus, Dorfak
3	Golestan	70,000	Domsiyah, Sange-Tarom, Neda, Nemat, Shafagh
4	Khuzestan	51,337	Champa, Anburi, Ahavaz1
5	Fars	49,360	Ghasrodashti, Anbarbu, Garde-Shahri, Champalenjani
6	Esfahan	15,170	Sazandegi, Sorkhe, Nokaran, Lanjan, Garde-Lanjan
7	Kohgiluyeh & Boyer-Ahmad	9,000	Champa-Mahalli, Charam1, Charam2, Charam3, Yasuj1, Yasuj2, Yasuj3
8	Lorestan	5,896	Mahalli, Tarom-Hashemi
9	Chaharmahal & Bakhtiari	4,138	Garde-Mahalli, Koohrang
10	Zanjan	3,817	Garde, Binam

3.2. Rice-based foods

Most Iranian people have three meals a day. Although the foods eaten for these meals vary in different regions, rice is commonly consumed by all people throughout the country. Table 2 introduces 100 types of traditional and ethnic rice-based foods produced and consumed in Iran. The table shows the Persian name, the English equivalent, the main ingredients of each food, and the medicinal uses and properties of the rice-based foods. The most common and popular of these foods are also shown in Fig. 1 . The list of ethnic and traditional Iranian rice-based foods can be categorized into main meals, soups/pottages, and sweets/desserts. In addition, the rice-based main meal can be subdivided into six categories (cooked rice, mixed pilaf, rice and stew, rice and high protein dish, stuffed vegetables and kofta, and tahchin ).

Table 2. The most popular and common ethnic and traditional rice-based foods in Iran.

Category	No.	Persian name	English equivalent	Main ingredients	Medicinal use(s)/property(ies)	Image
Main meals	1	Adas polow	Lentil-pilaf	Rice, lentil, minced meat, onion, spices	Anemia treatment	Fig. 1 A
	2	Albaloo polow	Sour cherry-pilaf	Rice, sour cherry jam, minced meat, onion, saffron	Improving nervous system	Fig. 1 B
	3	Anar polow	Pomegranate-pilaf	Rice, pomegranate, coriander, sliced pistachio	Appetizing	Fig. 1 C
	4	Baghali polow	Fava beans-pilaf	Rice, fava beans, dill	Diarrhea remedy	Fig. 1 D
	5	Berenj masti	Yogurt-pilaf	Rice, Yogurt, yolk egg, saffron	Diarrhea remedy	–
	6	Berenj sorkh shodeh	Fried rice	Rice, pea, corn, ginger, spring onion, egg, butter, capsicum, soy sauce	Appetizing	–
	7	Berenj zaferani	Saffron rice	Rice, saffron, sugar, oil	Appetizing	Fig. 1 E
	8	Bilhar polow	Dorema aucheri-pilaf	Rice, veal, artichoke/Dorema aucheri , onion, corn oil, turmeric, pepper	Strengthening body	–
	9	Chelow dizi	Pilaf-dizi	Rice, mutton, black-eyed pea, onion, turmeric	Nourishing	–
	10	Chelow fesenjan	Pilaf-fesenjan	Rice, minced meat, onion, sugar, walnut, pomegranate paste	Energizing, improving nervous system	Fig. 2 A
	11	Chelow gheimeh	Pilaf-gheimeh	Rice, split pea, mutton, potato, dried lemon, onion, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste	Strengthening body, boosting immune system	Fig. 2 B
	12	Chelow gosht	Pilaf-meat	Rice, mutton, lemon, onion, turmeric, pepper, saffron, tomato paste, cinnamon	Sexual ability enhancement, energizing	Fig. 2 D
	13	Chelow kebab	Pilaf-kebab	Rice, minced meat, onion, pepper	Sexual ability enhancement, energizing	Fig. 2 E
	14	Chelow mahi	Pilaf-fish	Rice, fish, onion, turmeric, saffron	Iron deficiency anemia treatment, improving nervous system	Fig. 2 F
	15	Chelow mahiche	Pilaf-lamb shank	Rice, lamb shank, onion, garlic, turmeric, pepper, cinnamon	Sexual ability enhancement, energizing	Fig. 2 G
	16	Chelow-khoresh alu	Pilaf-plum stew	Rice, plum, split pea, sugar, mutton, onion, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste	Weakness treatment, constipation remedy	–
	17	Chelow-khoresh bamiye	Pilaf-okra stew	Rice, okra, mutton, onion, lemon, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste	Sexual ability enhancement	Fig. 2 C
	18	Chelow-khoresh beh	Pilaf-quince stew	Rice, quince, split pea, mutton, onion, lemon, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste	Appetizing, exhilarating	–
	19	Chelow-khoresh goje-sabz	Pilaf-green plum stew	Rice, green plum, mutton, onion, mint, parsley, turmeric, pepper	Constipation remedy	–
	20	Chelow-khoresh gol-kalam	Pilaf-cauliflower stew	Rice, cauliflower, mutton, onion, mint, parsley, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste, lemon, spices	Cancer prevention	–
	21	Chelow-khoresh kadu-halvaie	Pilaf-pumpkin stew	Rice, pumpkin, split pea, tamarind, mutton, onion, garlic, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste	Cancer prevention, constipation remedy	–
	22	Chelow-khoresh kangar	Pilaf-artichoke stew	Rice, artichoke, herbs, mutton, onion, pepper, tomato paste, saffron, spices	Sexual ability enhancement	–
	23	Chelow-khoresh karafs	Pilaf-celery stew	Rice, celery, mutton, onion, mint, parsley, pepper, lemon, saffron, spices	Boosting immune system	–
	24	Chelow-khoresh lubia-sabz	Pilaf-green beans stew	Rice, green beans, mutton, onion, turmeric, pepper, tomato paste, cinnamon	Boosting kidney health	–
	25	Chelow-khoresh rivas	Pilaf-rhubarb stew	Rice, rhubarb, mutton, onion, pepper, saffron	Improving digestive system	–
	26	Dale-adas polow	Red lentil-pilaf	Rice, red lentil, minced meat, onion, turmeric, pepper, coriander, mustard powder	Boosting immune system	–
	27	Dami	Cooked rice	Rice, water, oil, salt	Improving nervous system	–
	28	Dandeh polow	Rib-pilaf	Rice, rib, cumin, cinnamon, turmeric, pepper	Sexual ability enhancement, energizing	–
	29	Dolmeh barge mo	Stuffed grape leaves	Rice, grape leaves, minced meat, onion, turmeric, pepper, dill, parsley, mint, tarragon, sugar	Improving digestive system	Fig. 3 A
	30	Dolmeh badenjan	Stuffed eggplant	Rice, eggplant, minced meat, onion, turmeric, pepper, spring onion, mint, tarragon, lemon, tomato paste	Iron deficiency anemia treatment	Fig. 3 B
	31	Dolmeh felfel sabz	Stuffed capsicum	Rice, capsicum, minced meat, onion, parsley, mint, tarragon, turmeric, pepper, lemon, tomato paste	Cancer prevention	Fig. 3 C
	32	Dolmeh gojeh farangi	Stuffed tomato	Rice, tomato, minced meat, onion, parsley, dill, tarragon, coriander, turmeric, pepper, lemon	Appetizing, weakness, & fatigue treatment	Fig. 3 D
	33	Dolmeh kahoo	Stuffed lettuce	Rice, lettuce, minced meat, onion, parsley, tarragon, turmeric, pepper, saffron, savory	Improving nervous system	–
	34	Dolmeh kalam barg	Stuffed cabbage	Rice, cabbage, minced meat, onion, turmeric, pepper, parsley, dill, tarragon, coriander, lemon, tomato paste, sugar	Anti-colds, improving nervous system	Fig. 3 E
	35	Esfenaj polow	Spinach-pilaf	Rice, spinach, mutton/chicken, onion, garlic, saffron, cinnamon, turmeric, pepper	Cancer prevention, boosting immune system	–
	36	Estamboli polow	Green beans-pilaf	Rice, green beans, minced meat, onion, turmeric	Arthritis prevention	Fig. 1 F
	37	Ghormeh sabzi	Herbs stew-pilaf	Rice, mutton, parsley, fenugreek, turmeric, pepper, dried lemon, onion	Strengthening body	–
	38	Havij polow	Carrot-pilaf	Rice, carrot, minced meat, onion, sugar, saffron	Strengthening body	–
	39	Joojeh kebab	Grilled chicken-pilaf	Rice, chicken, onion, lemon, saffron, pepper	Improving nervous system, osteoporosis prevention	Fig. 2 H
	40	Kadu polow	Pumpkin-pilaf	Rice, pumpkin, minced meat, onion, butter, sugar, saffron, spices	Weakness & fatigue Treatment	–
	41	Kalam polow	Cabbage-pilaf	Rice, cabbage, minced meat, onion, turmeric, lemon, tomato paste	Anemia treatment	–
	42	Kary polow	Curry-pilaf	Rice, chicken, curry, green pea, turmeric, pepper, saffron, potato	Depression prevention	–
	43	Kateh	Cooked rice	Rice, water, butter, salt	Diarrhea remedy	Fig. 1 G
	44	Keshmesh polow	Raisin-pilaf	Rice, raisin, chicken, onion, saffron, sour orange paste, pepper	Weakness & fatigue treatment	–
	45	Khorma polow	Date-pilaf	Rice, date, raisin, milk, butter, saffron	Energizing, sexual ability enhancement	Fig. 1 H
	46	Koofteh	Kofta	Rice, minced meat, split pea, onion, lemon, egg, tomato paste, dill, parsley, tarragon, mint, savory	Strengthening body	Fig. 3 F
	47	Labu polow	Beet-pilaf	Rice, beet, chicken, spinach, onion, saffron, pepper	Cancer prevention, anemia treatment	–
	48	Lakh lakh	Lakh lakh	Rice, fish, garlic, onion, turmeric, pepper, coriander, dill, fenugreek, tamarind	Anemia treatment	–
	49	Lubia polow	Beans-pilaf	Rice, beans, mutton, turmeric, pepper, cinnamon	Anemia treatment	–
	50	Mani polow	Mani-pilaf	Rice, raisin, split pea, barberry, mutton, noodles, onion, turmeric, pepper, saffron, caraway	Anemia treatment	–
	51	Meygoo polow	Shrimp-pilaf	Rice, shrimp, fried onion, turmeric, pepper, coriander, parsley, fenugreek	Cancer prevention	Fig. 1 I
	52	Morasa polow	Jeweled rice	Rice, chicken, raisin, barberry, sliced pistachio, sliced almond, sliced orange, saffron, onion, pepper	Energizing	Fig. 1 J
	53	Nokhod polow	Green pea-pilaf	Rice, green pea, minced meat, onion, tomato paste, cinnamon, turmeric, pepper,	Cancer prevention	–
	54	Polow	Rice, pilaf	Rice, water, oil/butter, salt	Improving nervous system	–
	55	Polow balghur	Bulgur-pilaf	Rice, wheat bulgur, lentil, onion, pepper, caraway	Improving digestive system	–
	56	Polow bandari	Bandari-pilaf	Rice, capsicum, garlic, onion, green pea, canned fish, coriander, pepper	Anemia treatment	–
	57	Polow cheshm bolboli	Black-eyed pea-pilaf	Rice, black-eyed Pea, dill	Diarrhea remedy	Fig. 1 K
	58	Polow ghormeh	Fried meat-pilaf	Rice, mutton, dried lemon, fenugreek, parsley	Sexual ability enhancement	–
	59	Polow goje	Tomato-pilaf	Rice, tomato, onion, turmeric, pepper	Appetizing, improving nervous system	Fig. 1 L
	60	Polow sabzijat	Vegetables-pilaf	Rice, potato, carrot, onion, garlic, mushroom, tomato, capsicum, saffron, cinnamon, coriander, ginger, pepper, rose	Appetizing	–
	61	Polow se-rang	Three-color rice	Rice, chicken breast, tomato, yogurt, onion, saffron, plum, egg, tomato paste	Cancer prevention	–
	62	Polow shirazi	Shirazi-Pilaf	Rice, chicken, eggplant, yogurt, barberry, saffron	Strengthening body	–
	63	Polow tond	Spiced rice	Rice, minced meat, mushroom, turmeric, pepper	Cancer prevention	–
	64	Polow zireh	Cumin-pilaf	Rice, cumin, mutton, barberry, saffron	Improving digestive system	Fig. 1 M
	65	Polow zorat	Corn-pilaf	Rice, corn, minced meat, onion, capsicum	Cancer prevention	–
	66	Reshteh polow	Noodles-pilaf	Rice, noodles	Energizing, strengthening body	Fig. 1 N
	67	Sardi polow	Sardi-pilaf	Rice, minced meat, carrot, raisin, turmeric, pepper, cinnamon, caraway, coriander	Weakness & fatigue treatment	–
	68	Shirin polow	Sweet rice	Rice, sugar, chicken, pistachio, almond, carrot, saffron, sour orange	Energizing, exhilarating	Fig. 1 O
	69	Sholeh amiri	Sholeh amiri	Rice, mung, onion, turmeric	Weakness & fatigue treatment	–
	70	Sib polow	Kermanshahi-pilaf	Rice, potato, minced meat, onion, date, raisin, butter, saffron	Strengthening body	–
	71	Sibzamini polow	Potato-pilaf	Rice, potato, minced meat, onion, dill	Strengthening body	Fig. 1 P
	72	Tahchin gharch	Mushroom-tahchin	Rice, mushroom, yogurt, yolk egg, saffron	Exhilarating	–
	73	Tahchin goosht	Meat-tahchin	Rice, mutton, yogurt, egg, saffron	Energizing, sexual ability enhancement	–
	74	Tahchin mahi	Fish-tahchin	Rice, fish, yogurt, yolk egg, dill, coriander, butter, saffron	Improving nervous system, anemia treatment	Fig. 4 A
	75	Tahchin morgh	Chicken-tahchin	Rice, chicken, yogurt, egg, saffron	Osteoporosis prevention, improving nervous system	Fig. 4 B
	76	Vanoushak polo	Pistacia atlantica-pilaf	Rice, Pistacia atlantica , minced meat, fried onion, tomato paste, saffron	Appetizing	–
	77	Yakhmeh torsh	Sour-yakhmeh	Rice, plum, apricot, quince, sugar, mutton, turmeric	Nourishing, strengthening body	–
	78	Zereshk polow	Barberry-pilaf	Rice, sliced pistachio, sliced almond, barberry, saffron, chicken	Strengthening body	Fig. 2 I
Soups & pottages	79	Ash anar	Pomegranate pottage	Rice, split peas, pomegranate, minced meat, onion, coriander, parsley, mint, angelica	Strengthening body	Fig. 6 A
	80	Ash berenj	Rice pottage	Rice, mutton, fried onion, lentil, spinach, coriander, pepper	Healing colds	–
	81	Ash halav	Halav pottage	Rice, white bean, chickpea, mutton, onion, parsley, mint, spring onion, chard, turmeric, bulgur, lemon	Boosting immune system	–
	82	Ash kadou	Pumpkin soup	Rice, lentil, pumpkin, sugar, lemon, mint	Strengthening body	–
	83	Ash mash	Mung soup	Rice, mung, onion, coriander, parsley, mint, pepper	Strengthening body	–
	84	Ash miveh	Fruit soup	Rice, chickpea, red bean, minced meat, apricot, greengage, onion, coriander, parsley, mint, turmeric	Improving digestive system	–
	85	Ash mostafa	Mostafa pottage	Rice, chickpea, chard, kashk (a thick liquid similar to whey), mint, onion	Strengthening body	–
	86	Ash sabzi	Herb soup	Rice, mutton, tarragon, dill, onion, chickpea, red bean, lentil, turmeric, pepper	Healing colds	–
	87	Ash somagh	Sumac soup	Rice flour, sumac, minced meat, onion, coriander, parsley, mint, tarragon	Improving gums	Fig. 6 B
	88	Ghalieh ash	Ghalieh pottage	Rice flour, white bean, chickpea, minced meat, onion, carrot, parsley, mint, raisin, beet, coriander, sugar, vinegar, pepper	Strengthening body	–
	89	Ghateghli ash	Ghateghli pottage	Rice, yogurt, spinach	Improving digestive system	–
	90	Mashab	Mashab	Rice, mung, black-eyed pea, wheat, potato, pumpkin, lentil, mutton, fried onion, mint, turmeric, pepper, kashk	Strengthening body	–
	91	Soup sib	Apple soup	Rice, apple, almond, garlic, butter, sugar, cream	Exhilarating	–
Sweets & desserts	92	Digcheh	Digcheh	Rice, sugar, milk, saffron, sliced pistachio, cardamom	Nourishing, sexual ability enhancement	Fig. 5 A
	93	Fereni	Rice flour pudding	Rice flour, milk, sugar, rose-water	Energizing	Fig. 5 B
	94	Halva	Halva	Rice flour, sugar, saffron, water, oil, rose-water	Nourishing, energizing	Fig. 5 C
	95	Harireh badam	Almond gruel	Rice flour, almond powder, sugar, water	Osteoporosis prevention	–
	96	Nan berenji	Rice bread	Rice flour, water, wheat flour, sugar, cumin, walnut	Nourishing, exhilarating	–
	97	Shir berenj	milk-rice pudding	Rice, milk, water, sugar, rose water	Nourishing, sexual ability enhancement	Fig. 5 D
	98	Shirini berenji	Rice cookies	Rice flour, sugar powder, egg, nigella, rose water	Exhilarating	Fig. 5 E
	99	Shole zard	Saffron rice pudding	Rice, water, sugar, rose-water, saffron, oil, sliced almond, cinnamon, pistachio powder, cardamom powder	Energizing, nourishing	Fig. 5 F
	100	Yakh dar behesht	Ice-in-heaven	Rice flour, starch, sugar, rose-water, milk, water, sliced pistachio	Nourishing, exhilarating	–

Fig. 1. Some types of Iranian cooked rice or mixed pilaf. (A) Lentil-pilaf. (B) Sour cherry-pilaf. (C) Pomegranate-pilaf. (D) Fava beans-pilaf. (E) Saffron rice. (F) Green beans-pilaf. (G) Cooked rice. (H) Date-pilaf. (I) Shrimp-pilaf. (J) Jeweled rice. (K) Black-eyed pea-pilaf. (L) Tomato-pilaf. (M) Cumin-pilaf. (N) Noodles-pilaf. (O) Sweet rice. (P) Potato-pilaf.

Therefore, rice as a main ingredient of Iranian cuisine can be consumed in one of the below groups.

3.2.1. Cooked rice

Cooked rice is one of the most popular traditional foods prepared and consumed in Iran (Fig. 1 G). The rice cooking process is performed in different manners. Generally, there are three types of cooked rice, namely, dami , kateh , and polow (Numbers 27, 43, and 54 in Table 2 ).

Dami is the traditional dish of the Iranian people, which is prepared by boiling and cooking the rice in water. Before or during its preparation, salt and a little oil/butter are added. The water/rice volume ratio is about 2:1 and it changes depending on which variety of rice is used. Housewives obtain the proper ratio through trial and error. At the end of the process, the rice is cooked well and the water is completely absorbed. Kateh is the other type of cooked rice that is similar to dami . In this traditional food, using a greater water/rice volume ratio results in the production of cooked rice in a sticky and pasty form. Traditionally, the people of the Northern provinces of Iran use the glutinous varieties of rice for the preparation of kateh . Polow is also a very common Iranian food that is prepared in three steps. Firstly, the rice is soaked in salted water for 5–15 hours and then it is boiled for 20–50 minutes. Finally, the parboiled rice is drained and returned to the pan to be cooked. This technique leads to fluffy rice with nonsticky separated grains.

3.2.2. Mixed pilaf

Mixed pilaf is a type of cooked rice that is prepared by mixing a diverse range of ingredients. Meat, chicken, fruits, vegetables, cereals, and even nuts can be added in layers or mixed well with the soaked or parboiled rice and then cooked (Numbers 1–5, 7–8, 26, 35, 36, 38, 40–42, 44, 45, 47, 49–53, 55–68, 70, 71, and 76 in Table 2 ). When the mixed pilaf is cooking in the pot, a towel is set on top of the pot to absorb the excess steam. Some types of Iranian cooked rice or mixed pilaf are shown in Fig. 1 .

3.2.3. Rice and stew

There are many different types of stews in Iranian cuisine that are traditionally served with rice (Numbers 9–12, 16–25, and 37 in Table 2 ). Although the consumption of stews with bread can be seen in dietary patterns of households in Iran, the obtained results indicate that the serving of stews with rice is very more common and popular. Figs. 2 A–2C show the three most common of these rice-based foods.

Fig. 2. The most popular and common ethnic and traditional rice-based foods in Iran. (A) Pilaf-fesenjan. (B) Pilaf-gheimeh. (C) Pilaf-okra stew. (D) Pilaf-meat. (E) Pilaf-kebab. (F) Pilaf-fish. (G) Pilaf-lamb shank. (H) Grilled chicken-pilaf. (I) Barberry-pilaf.

3.2.4. Rice and high protein dishes

There are several high protein dishes in Iranian cuisine that are usually served with rice (Fig. 2 ). These national and traditional dishes may include lamb shank, mutton, minced meat, rib, fish, and chicken (Numbers 13–15, 28, 39, and 78 in Table 2 ).

3.2.5. Stuffed vegetables/kofta

Dolmeh is the name of a group of stuffed vegetable dishes popular in Iranian cuisine. Common vegetables for stuffing include eggplant, tomato, lettuce, cabbage, capsicum, and grape leave ( Fig. 3 ). The filling usually consists of soaked or parboiled rice, spices, and minced meat (Numbers 29–34 and 46 in Table 2 ).

Fig. 3. Some types of traditional rice-based stuffed vegetable and kofta. (A) Stuffed grape leaves. (B) Stuffed eggplant. (C) Stuffed capsicum. (D) Stuffed tomato. (E) Stuffed cabbage. (F) Kofta.

There is also another type of riced based food called kofta, whose ingredients are similar to those of dolmeh ( Fig. 3 F). In a simple form, kofta are balls of minced meat combined with parboiled rice, onion, and spices. Kofta is prepared after bringing the balls to the boil and simmering for a few minutes.

3.2.6. Tahchin (“arranged at the bottom”)

Tahchin is a traditional Iranian rice-based food that looks like a cake. This popular food includes rice, egg, yogurt, saffron, and mutton. It is very common to use lamb shank, fish, chicken fillets, or vegetables instead of the mutton. Tahchin is composed of two different layers. The first part is a thin layer composed of nonrice ingredients that are arranged at the bottom of the cooking pot. The second layer includes white or saffron rice that is placed on the first layer (Numbers 72–75 in Table 2 ). Fig. 4 shows the two most popular types of this rice-based food.

Fig. 4. Two types of Iranian tahchin . (A) Fish-tahchin . (B) Chicken-tahchin .

3.2.7. Sweets and desserts

There are various types of traditional rice-based sweets and desserts in Iranian cuisine (Numbers 92–100 in Table 2 ). These foods can be prepared and consumed to celebrate spring festivals or important events. Some of them are often produced for religious ceremonies, as well as being consuming by pilgrims and religious tourists during special times of the year. Rice in the form of flour, grain, or powder can be used for the preparation of rice-based sweets and desserts. Fig. 5 shows some common types of traditional sweets and desserts.

Fig. 5. Some types of traditional rice-based sweets and desserts. (A) Digcheh . (B) Rice flour pudding. (C) Halva . (D) Milk-rice pudding. (E) Rice cookies. (F) Saffron rice pudding.

3.2.8. Soups and pottages

Iranian traditional rice-based soups and pottages are rich and diverse (Numbers 79–91 in Table 2 ). Some of these foods can be served thin and soupy and some of them are prepared very thick. A thin rice-based soup can become thick by adding too much rice flour, too many starchy vegetables, or other thickeners, as well as boiling the soup for too long. The two delicious types of this traditional rice-based food are shown in Fig. 6 .

Fig. 6. Two types of traditional rice-based soups and pottages. (A) Pomegranate pottage. (B) Sumac soup.

3.3. The cultural aspects of rice-based foods

As a well-accepted principle of Iranian culture, the eating should be done on the basis of a balanced system of hot–cold foods. The hot or cold nature of a food is determined by the preparation method, main ingredients, and the characteristics such as taste. As a general and practical formula, it is believed that the cold foods should be eaten accompanying hot foods or constituents, and vice versa. For instance, pilaf-fish is a popular rice-based food of Iranian cuisine that is usually cold. In the most parts of the country, the use of dates, saffron, pepper, and other hot spices is very common for equilibrating the meal, while the consumption of foodstuffs of a cold nature such as yogurt is avoided.

The consumption of a rice-based food in the daily diet of Iranian people is very common and should be expected. In other words, the centerpiece of Iranian meals is rice. In Iran, most of the garrisons, prisons, hospitals, universities, big companies, and star-rated hotels have a restaurant providing rice-based dishes on the daily menu. The ethnic and traditional Iranian rice-based foods are not limited to just those listed in Table 2 . However, the preparation and eating of these foods by families at any time and location is possible and usual.

In certain regions along the Caspian Sea coast, the people consume rice or a rice-based food at every meal, even for breakfast. Glutinous and sticky rice is preferred in the northern areas of the country, while fluffy, long-grain, and nonsticky rice is consumed in the other parts. The popularity and generality of ethnic and traditional rice-based foods in different provinces of Iran is shown in Fig. 7 . The other rice-based foods are common throughout the country, and their popularities are not limited to a special province.

Fig. 7. The popularity and generality of ethnic and traditional rice-based foods in different provinces of Iran.

Furthermore, the meal cycle in Iranian culture includes feasting and fasting. A feast is usually an abundant meal often accompanied by a celebration, entertainment, or ceremony. Iranian secular holidays such as Nowruz (traditional Iranian festival of spring) celebration, traditional ceremonies such as Yalda night (the longest night of the year) celebration, religious holidays such as Tasua (the 9^th day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar which is the day before Ashura ), and Ashura (the 10^th day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar, when Imam Hussein was martyred), and even personal events such as family celebrations, family parties, a childs birth celebration, deaths, and marriages are observed with special and appropriate rice-based foods.

Fasting is voluntarily not eating food for varying lengths of time. During the holy month of Ramadan (the 9^th month in the Islamic calendar), Iranian Muslims are obligated to fast from dawn to sunset. However, many types of foods are consumed daily, before dawn and after sunset. Table 3 shows the most common feasting and fasting events of the Iranian people, and the popular rice-based foods that are served in these ceremonies.

Table 3. The most popular and common rice-based foods in the Iranian ceremonies.

Family celebration, family party	Official ceremony	Wedding ceremony	Yalda night celebration	Nowruz celebration	Religious ceremony	Ramadan	Funeral, death, anniversary
Lentil-pilaf	Fava beans-pilaf	Fava beans-pilaf	Pomegranate-pilaf	Pilaf-fesenjan	Lentil-pilaf	Almond gruel	Fava beans-pilaf
Fava beans-pilaf	Saffron rice	Saffron rice	Stuffed eggplant	Pilaf-fish	Fava beans-pilaf	milk-rice pudding	Pilaf-gheimeh
Saffron rice	Pilaf-gheimeh	Pilaf-fesenjan	Stuffed cabbage	Stuffed grape leaves	Pilaf-fesenjan	Saffron rice pudding	Pilaf-meat
Pilaf-fesenjan	Pilaf-meat	Pilaf-gheimeh	Cabbage-pilaf	Stuffed cabbage	Pilaf-gheimeh		Pilaf-kebab
Pilaf-gheimeh	Pilaf-kebab	Pilaf-meat	Kofta	Noodles-pilaf	Pilaf-meat		Pilaf-lamb shank
Pilaf-meat	Pilaf-fish	Pilaf-kebab	Shirazi -pilaf	Rice cookies	Pilaf-kebab		Grilled chicken-pilaf
Pilaf-kebab	Pilaf-lamb shank	Pilaf-fish	Fish-tahchin		Grilled chicken-pilaf		Barberry-pilaf
Pilaf-fish	Grilled chicken-pilaf	Pilaf-lamb shank	Pomegranate pottage		Barberry-pilaf		Halva
Pilaf-lamb shank	Barberry-pilaf	Grilled chicken-pilaf	Fruit soup		Herb soup
Herbs stew-pilaf		Jeweled rice			Digcheh
Grilled chicken-pilaf		Three-color rice			Saffron rice pudding
Raisin-pilaf		Sweet rice
Jeweled rice		Barberry-pilaf
Meat-tahchin		Rice cookies
Barberry-pilaf

4. Discussion

The main ingredient used for preparing ethnic and traditional Iranian foods is rice. Iranian people and rice have an inseparable relationship. Therefore, Iranians have developed many ways to create rice-based foods. A rice-based food is an important part of Iranian cuisine and consumed in main or side dishes by all members of the household. One hundred of the most popular ethnic rice-based foods prepared in Iran were introduced and documented in this article. Detailed investigations and further studies on the characteristics and the methods of preparation of rice-based foods are ongoing.

Conflicts of interest

The author has no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

All the support by the Quchan University of Advanced Technology is acknowledged and much appreciated.

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